tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-90388054539131338082024-03-14T00:37:59.562-07:00Firearms History, Technology & DevelopmentThe Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.comBlogger552125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-20973590613664110362017-02-13T00:13:00.000-08:002017-02-16T20:55:10.851-08:00Smokeless Powders: CorditeIn our last post, we studied <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2017/02/smokeless-powders-ballistite.html">the invention of <b>ballistite</b></a> by Alfred Nobel in France. In today's post, we will study how Britain managed to obtain a similar smokeless powder: <b>cordite</b>.<br />
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As we saw previously, the French had managed to invent a smokeless powder for military use in 1884, which they called <i><a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2017/02/smokeless-powders-further-developments.html">Poudre B</a></i> and had developed a new rifle, the Lebel M1886 rifle in 1886, after which other governments became aware that the French had a new secret propellant that was superior to black powder. Shortly after this, Alfred Nobel invented ballistite in 1887 and tried to sell it to the French military. However, since they had already settled on using Poudre B and partly because of Poudre B's inventor, Paul Vieille, having connections with the French military, the French turned Alfred Nobel's offer down, even though ballistite was superior to Poudre B. Therefore, Nobel tried to sell his invention to other countries and managed to make a <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2017/02/smokeless-powders-ballistite.html">sale to the Italians</a>. While the French weren't about to reveal the secrets of Poudre B to others, Nobel was selling ballistite to anyone who could pay him. In 1888, the British government formed a special commission to gather information about Vieille's and Nobel's discoveries. The British feared that if a smokeless powder was actually invented, they needed to get access to the technology as soon as possible, in order to remain a world power. The British commission's mandate was "to investigate new discoveries, especially such as affected the use of military explosives, and to submit to the War Office, proposals for the introduction of any technical improvements in the field."<br />
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One of the two scientists that the British put in the commission was Sir Frederick Abel, who we studied about in previous posts. Abel was instrumental in <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2017/01/smokeless-powders-further-developments.html">improving the Von Lenk process of manufacturing gun cotton and making it safer</a>. The other scientist was Sir James Dewar, who was also a well known chemist and physicist of that era.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjn_9UVAhZxypRuxZGcq9GiqCnWlJ7hA8-elvl5Yuny-xzdSyclT65txD0-pmw7PlYFbrMtNI-PTKM-NIoJVIGErerX6ExRHbUOvWfiOlUDDz7woalRR0IYA8avE4keD_1jHjX-6W8IMld/s1600/Frederick_Abel.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjn_9UVAhZxypRuxZGcq9GiqCnWlJ7hA8-elvl5Yuny-xzdSyclT65txD0-pmw7PlYFbrMtNI-PTKM-NIoJVIGErerX6ExRHbUOvWfiOlUDDz7woalRR0IYA8avE4keD_1jHjX-6W8IMld/s320/Frederick_Abel.jpg" width="255" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Sir Frederick Abel</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Sir James Dewar</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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Nobel was pretty well acquainted with both men. Abel was actually a sort of rival to Alfred Nobel about 20 years previously, when Nobel had tried to set up a factory to manufacture dynamite in Britain and Abel had managed to convince British authorities that gun cotton produced by his process was safer to make and thereby prevented dynamite from being sold or manufactured in Britain for a long time. However, as time passed, the two rivals had become somewhat friendly to each other, even exchanging letters and occasionally meeting each other in Paris or London to discuss technical matters. James Dewar was a close friend of Abel and he too had corresponded with Nobel before on technical matters in chemistry.<br />
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As part of the commission's study, they requested some detailed information about production and samples of ballistite, which Nobel readily supplied to them. They also carefully studied Nobel's patent claim for ballistite in France. This is where <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2017/02/smokeless-powders-ballistite.html">Nobel's patent</a> claim came back to haunt him. His patent for ballistite stated that "<i>ballistite was a combination of equal parts of nitroglycerin and nitrocellulose <b>"of the well known soluble kind"</b>, with about <b>10% camphor</b>. </i>" The wording here is very precise and your humble editor has taken the liberty of highlighting a few bits, because they are important to the next few paragraphs.<br />
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So in 1890, Nobel's Explosives Company in Scotland obtained a British patent for ballistite and tried to market it to the British War Office, only to be informed that they had already acquired a patent for a smokeless powder invented by Abel and Dewar, called "the committee's modification of ballistite", or <b>cordite</b>. While looking at Nobel's patent notes on ballistite, the two chemists noted that they could make a few small changes to the original formula and get similar results with the modified formula. Therefore, they quickly took out a patent in secret for their new substance and told the British military about it first, before informing Nobel about it.<br />
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Cordite had a few minor modifications to the original ballistite formula. It used vaseline instead of camphor, which was a better stabilizer anyway. Secondly, it used a larger proportion of nitroglycerin in its formula. Thirdly, the formula for ballistite had specified nitrocellulose "of the well known soluble kind" (i.e. a collodion paste that was soluble in water). The formula for cordite used the insoluble form of nitrocellulose (i.e.) gun cotton instead.<br />
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Of course Nobel was extremely angry about this and launched a patent infringement lawsuit immediately. The case dragged on to the Chancery Division Court in 1892, which ruled against him. Nobel appealed again and the case got pushed up into higher courts until it reached the House of Lords in 1895, which also ruled against Nobel, due to technicalities in his original patent application, and he was ordered to pay court costs. The problem was that his patent clearly specified that it used "the well known soluble kind of nitrocellulose", whereas cordite used the insoluble kind. The Lord Justice Kay was actually quite sympathetic to Nobel in his remarks: "It is quite obvious that a dwarf who has been allowed to climb up on the back of a giant can see farther than the giant himself ... In this case, I cannot but sympathize with the holder of the original patent. Mr. Nobel made a great invention, which in theory was something extraordinary, a really great innovation -- and then two clever chemists got hold of his specifications for the patent, read them carefully, and after that, with the aid of their own thorough knowledge of chemistry, discovered that they could use practically the same substances with a difference as to one of them, and produce the same results one by one". Therefore, what Abel and Dewar had done was probably morally wrong, they were technically and legally in the right, as cordite was sufficiently different from ballistite to have its own separate patent.<br />
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Nobel was naturally not very happy with the court decision, but he did manage to sell ballistite to quite a few other countries. After a few years, ballistite was being used by the militaries of Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary empire, Sweden and Norway. Poudre B was being used by France, Russia and USA. Cordite became the predominant propellant used by the British empire, many countries in South America and Japan. Nobel's Explosive Company eventually manufactured both ballistite and cordite (even though his lawsuit caused the British government to not award any contracts to his company for over a decade afterwards). The company paid Nobel a half portion of the royalties from every batch of cordite produced, so he did make some money in the end.<br />
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In the next couple of posts, we will study the process of making cordite in some detail.<br />
<br />The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-60072574811989103102017-02-08T23:19:00.001-08:002017-02-08T23:27:10.216-08:00Smokeless Powders: BallistiteIn our last post, we talked about <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2017/02/smokeless-powders-further-developments.html">developments of smokeless powders in France</a>, leading to the invention of Poudre B smokeless powder. In today's post, we will study about another smokeless powder that was developed in France as well, but it wasn't developed by a Frenchman. Instead, it was developed by an Swedish inventor who happened to be living in Paris at that time. We will study the invention of <b>Ballistite</b>.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjE3YralcofR1i8ydELabUYAkGmlczyhZToE839T1MhjDmokvtVqXFswxwtqBpLpdiqe02zrKso-Me1SZ99sj-apI2qG7Y3Z00bOndlMqQkOX4m1od5D_T3tJbkCcrxhFez4YAVIm_8onRW/s1600/Alfred_Nobel.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjE3YralcofR1i8ydELabUYAkGmlczyhZToE839T1MhjDmokvtVqXFswxwtqBpLpdiqe02zrKso-Me1SZ99sj-apI2qG7Y3Z00bOndlMqQkOX4m1od5D_T3tJbkCcrxhFez4YAVIm_8onRW/s320/Alfred_Nobel.jpg" width="240" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Alfred Nobel. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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The Swedish inventor we are talking about is Alfred Nobel, who was a prolific inventor and was well known for inventing dynamite (and later, founding the Nobel prizes). Alfred Nobel's father, Immanuel Nobel, owned an armaments factory and Alfred and two of his brothers, Ludvig and Emil Nobel, were all interested in manufacturing better armaments and explosives. Alfred Nobel devoted a lot of his time to studying how to manufacture explosive substances safely and invented (among other things) a detonator, the blasting cap, dynamite, gelignite etc. These inventions (along with shares in the largest oil refinery in Russia, which was founded by his brothers, Ludvig and Robert) made him a very rich man and in 1873, he bought a large mansion on Avenue Malakoff in Paris and moved there. Despite his riches, he did not forget his interest in chemistry and still continued doing research in his laboratory.<br />
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It is not known exactly how he discovered how to make ballistite, but from his notes, it appears that he had been working on and off to make a smokeless powder since about 1879. He experimented over many months with various acids to make many explosive prototypes, which he tested at a blasting range outside Paris and then worked with assistants to perfect the manufacturing process. He didn't keep very many detailed notes mainly because of the need to protect trade secrets from competitors.<br />
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In 1887, a few months after Poudre B was accepted by the French government, Alfred Nobel submitted a patent application for his own smokeless powder, which he called "<b>ballistite</b>". According to his patent application, this was a combination of equal parts of nitroglycerin and nitrocellulose "of the well known soluble kind", with about 10% camphor. The exact wording on the patent application would come back to haunt him, as we will see in our next post. The purpose of the camphor was to react with any acidic products formed by the decomposition of the other two explosive substances. The camphor helped stabilize the other two substances from further decomposition and prevented explosions. In his 1887 patent application, Nobel wrote, "Celluloid, as a rule, contains nitrated cotton to approximately two-thirds of its weight, but owing to the camphor content and substance's compact consistency, celluloid's combustion, even if fine-grained, is far too slow to make it suitable as a propellant for projectiles. By substituting nitroglycerin, wholly or in part, for camphor, it is possible to produce a kind of celluloid with sufficient consistency to be formed into grains and which, on being loaded into firearms, burns with a subdued rate of combustion."<br />
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Like the Poudre B that we studied in the previous post, ballistite is also a substance that burns with much more force than black powder, but produces very little smoke and residue as well. Like Poudre B, it is also a plastic that can be shaped like dough and cut into precisely shaped and sized grains to fit the needs of everything from the smallest pistol to the biggest cannons.<br />
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So when Alfred Nobel triumphantly presented his latest invention to the French military in 1887, he was surprised to be rebuffed. It turns out that the French had just settled on using Poudre B a few months earlier in 1886 and Paul Vieille's political connections ensured that Poudre B would be used by the French military even though ballistite was a superior product. Nobel angrily wrote that "for all governments, a weak powder with strong influence is obviously better than a strong powder without this essential complement." Nevertheless, he went about marketing his invention to other countries and on August 1st, 1889, he obtained a contract from the Italian government and opened a new factory in Turin where he manufactured about 300 tons for the Italians. The next year, he licensed his patent to the Italian government for a large sum of money, so that they could manufacture it by themselves. The Italian army, in turn, replaced their old black powder rifles and adopted a new M1890 Vetterli rifle which used ballistite cartridges.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj93hFIiG-Te4TJ4W7roBKniksxkaVQZFmRSDNbTG4Un1sl2sMZh3BvCo3XI-_WbxyCpyVlcCVli8letFuzFpkseoaXwo9mYBEx5gy8JZswYGk85jSXuYPnYAxXzL4rAYmrqzkdSEBJMkKW/s1600/BallistiteCartridge.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj93hFIiG-Te4TJ4W7roBKniksxkaVQZFmRSDNbTG4Un1sl2sMZh3BvCo3XI-_WbxyCpyVlcCVli8letFuzFpkseoaXwo9mYBEx5gy8JZswYGk85jSXuYPnYAxXzL4rAYmrqzkdSEBJMkKW/s1600/BallistiteCartridge.jpg" /></a></div>
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During that period of time, France and Italy were competing with each other, to become great powers in Europe. Naturally, the news that a person living in Paris and helping their enemy with manufacturing superior cartridges did not sit very well with the French public and military. The French newspapers launched a series of articles attacking Nobel's character, accusing him of treason (despite him offering ballistite to the French first and living in France for 17 years) and claiming that he had spied on Vieille and stolen his recipe for ballistite from the laboratories of the French Administration des Poudres et Salpetres. The police conducted a search on his laboratory and shut it down, his testing range permit was revoked and he was prohibited from manufacturing ballistite in France. Therefore, in 1891, Nobel packed up his possessions from his mansion in Paris, along with any laboratory equipment that hadn't been seized, and moved everything to San Remo in Italy, where he bought a large house that he named Villa Nobel. He also built a laboratory close to his new house and continued experimenting there for the rest of his life.<br />
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It must be noted that the production process of ballistite involved making flexible sheets, which were cut into flakes in cutting machines, or in pastry cutters, or squirted through gratings to form threads. It was a curious fact that many machines that were originally used in Italy to make bread, pastries, pasta, spaghetti and macaroni, were now employed in the manufacture of smokeless powders!<br />
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Italy wasn't the only country that Alfred Nobel was marketing his invention to. In the next post, we will study how he accidentally helped Britain to make their own smokeless powder.<br />
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<br />The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-27370997672485531942017-02-05T23:18:00.001-08:002017-02-06T09:05:39.424-08:00Smokeless Powders: Further Developments in FranceIn our <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2017/01/smokeless-powders-developments-in-france.html">last post</a>, we studied some developments in powder technology advancements in France. In today's post we will study some further developments in the field.<br />
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In our last post, we studied how the team of Serrau and Vieille had made improvements in the process of measuring chamber pressures. In fact, Vieille invented a modification to the crusher gauge that enabled him to record the explosive strength over time, rather than just the maximum explosive strength. He also studied the effect of other parameters such as grain sizes and shapes and how they affected the speed of the explosion and the pressure curves generated over time. This enabled him to prove that the <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2017/01/smokeless-powders-developments-in-france.html">theory originally suggested in 1839 by General Guillaume Piobert</a>, was indeed valid fact, and that combustion does take place in parallel layers (Piobert's law)<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBFbmXmbZ7nKinvqe4Vaj0WLFSxcFDL1frCAMNCrHT0jXQQFpGaL1BYYM-72cFsesdRL9x8WKAVwjDr9nWkh2xJVhP_FC4RMH8SskdONp8_IpecUJD0wI6pimS6UwWImkmDTtjp2bL6Mo2/s1600/Paul_Vielle.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBFbmXmbZ7nKinvqe4Vaj0WLFSxcFDL1frCAMNCrHT0jXQQFpGaL1BYYM-72cFsesdRL9x8WKAVwjDr9nWkh2xJVhP_FC4RMH8SskdONp8_IpecUJD0wI6pimS6UwWImkmDTtjp2bL6Mo2/s1600/Paul_Vielle.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Paul Vieille</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Image released under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.</span></div>
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In the case of classic black powder, the powders are made of a mixture of charcoal, potassium nitrate (saltpeter) and sulfur and made of individual grains. They can be made to varying densities by refining and compressing them, which we studied in <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxii-compressed-powder.html">several</a> <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxiii-prismatic-powder.html">previous</a> <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxiv-pebble-powders.html">posts</a>. However, there are still spaces in between the grains and these interstices cannot be completely got rid of in conventional black powder. Therefore, no black powder really burns according to Piobert's law of parallel layers -- for this to happen, the black powder needs to be a homogeneous mixture without these spaces between the grains.<br />
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However, Vieille didn't just study black powder, he also extended his study newer explosives (including gun cotton) as well. Due to his studies, he now understood why gun cotton's fibrous structure caused it to burn much more quickly in a barrel than black powder and why it produced much more force. He understood that if he could somehow reduce the combustion rate of gun cotton, then it could be used as an excellent propellant for firearms as well, and to do this, he would need to change the structure of the gun cotton fibers, so that he could enable it to burn in "parallel layers". His idea was to convert the gun cotton into a "powder", not like black powder which has gaps between the grains, but more like a homogeneous material whose geometry could be modified by the manufacturer to burn at a precise rate in layers. His method was to dissolve the gun cotton in a mixture of alcohol and ether, stabilize it with amyl alcohol and form a colloidal paste. This colloidal paste could then be passed through heavy rollers to make thin sheets of precise thickness, extruded into rods, molded into plates etc. and then dried and cut into flakes of precise shapes suitable for the ballistic requirements of any particular firearm or artillery piece. All this development took place between 1882 and 1884 and the first practical results came out in 1884.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidmjN9j-aCJMPrmAPppJ-x-3VSPp9BmH-OLLOajTp7fVUM0clshSXyOhW97Jvw3dlIt_WF8JVfqAxvdGnnSyM8RSDABaOP76anpDKansLNiJHQjaEr_IJ7QiwBKLBajAXWverjhtOWSKe5/s1600/Poudre_B.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="312" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidmjN9j-aCJMPrmAPppJ-x-3VSPp9BmH-OLLOajTp7fVUM0clshSXyOhW97Jvw3dlIt_WF8JVfqAxvdGnnSyM8RSDABaOP76anpDKansLNiJHQjaEr_IJ7QiwBKLBajAXWverjhtOWSKe5/s320/Poudre_B.JPG" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">A sample of Poudre B. Click on the image to enlarge.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Image released under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license by snipersnoop</span></div>
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The first version of this new propellant was called "Poudre V". The word "<i>Poudre</i>" means "powder" in French and the letter "V" at the end stood for the name of its inventor, Paul Vieille. However, the French military were concerned that the Germans might find out details about this new invention and therefore, they arbitrarily changed its name to "Poudre B" so that the inventor's name would no longer be in it. Some claim that the name stood for "Poudre Blanche" (i.e. white powder), to distinguish it from black powder (note that Poudre B is not white colored either, it is actually a dark green and gray color), but the real reason for renaming it was to confuse German spies. The French military quickly adopted this powder and they also developed a new rifle for this, the 8 mm. Lebel rifle, in 1886. This was the first military rifle to use smokeless ammunition.<br />
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The Lebel rifle was a game-changer on the battlefield. First, it had longer range and a flatter trajectory than other rifles. Since the ammunition produces much less smoke, a soldier could stay hidden from the enemy, but locate them by observing the smoke from their black powder rifles. As the new propellant was three times more powerful than black powder, the cartridges weighed less for the same performance, which meant the soldier could carry more of them. The Lebel could also fire at the faster rate of 43 rounds a minute, compared to 26 rounds for the black powder M84 rifle of the German army. This is one reason why Otto von Bismarck opposed invading France in the winter of 1888 when his war minister Alfred von Waldersee wanted to go to war.<br />
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Other foreign powers learned that the French possessed a new propellant by 1886 after the Lebel rifle was accepted into military service. German spies were able to obtain a sample, but could not identify its components or manufacturing process. In 1890, the British managed to obtain some small tablets of Poudre B and picric acid and identified the compounds that form the basis of it. Quickly, the knowledge of its composition spread to other countries as well and they began to manufacture their own smokeless powders as well.<br />
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It must be mentioned that Poudre B still had some stability issues, especially when stored for long periods of time, due to the improper removal of acid during their manufacturing process. This caused two French warships, the Iena and the Liberte, to blow up in 1907 and 1911. Meanwhile, the process of manufacturing Poudre B had made improvements and newer versions (such as Poudre BF and Poudre BN3F) were invented by the early 1900s, which were much safer than Poudre B. In fact, the French used a variant called "Poudre BPF1" until the 1960s or so.<br />
<br />The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-49573857825613571822017-01-22T23:00:00.001-08:002017-01-23T00:59:52.779-08:00Smokeless Powders: Developments in FranceIn our <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2017/01/smokeless-powders-further-developments.html">last post</a>, we looked into the development of Schultze powder, one of the first smokeless powders. Today, we will look at developments in France at around the same time.<br />
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While the French were aware early on, of the <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/12/smokeless-powders-invention-of-gun.html">discovery of gun cotton by Christian Schönbein</a>, they stopped the use of gun cotton as an explosive material in 1852, as a result of a report by a military commission, which concluded that:<br />
<i>"in the present state during which, various attempts made by the Artillery and the various chemists and industrialists in the preparation of these products, there is no need to continue experiments with regard to their use in weapons of war."</i><br />
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The reason for discontinuing their research into gun cotton was due to two reasons:<br />
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<ol>
<li>The instability of gun cotton, as seen by unexplained explosions of stored gun cotton. We now know that this instability was caused by presence of acid residues in the gun cotton, which act as catalysts for decomposition of the gun cotton.</li>
<li>The combustion behavior of gun cotton, which caused higher pressures and was responsible for weapons exploding and causing accidents.</li>
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In France, they stopped research into gun cotton and studied other substances like picric acid instead. Meanwhile, as we saw in <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2017/01/smokeless-powders-von-lenk-process.html">an earlier post</a>, an Austrian officer, Baron Von Lenk, worked on solving the problems of gun cotton and discovered a process that enabled him to produce large quantities of gun cotton in 1862. Nevertheless, the Austrians also stopped production within a few years, due to explosions inside the two factories that produced their gun cotton. <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2017/01/smokeless-powders-further-developments.html">Some more improvements</a> in the production process were made by the British chemist, Sir Frederick Abel, but there was an explosion in the factory at Stowmarket in 1871 and from then on, they only used gun cotton for underwater torpedoes and mines. In France, they also started production of gun cotton for use by the French Navy in 1873, for torpedoes and mines as well. The factory was in Moulin-Blanc near Brest, in the Brittany region of northwestern France, and it produced gun cotton using the methods pioneered by Abel. </div>
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While the British discoveries had paved the way for safer manufacture of gun cotton, the problems of ballistics was still an obstacle to adoption for use in armaments: gun cotton burned too fast and weapons burst due to over-pressure. As one report of that time put it, <i>"Rifles that support 30 grams (1.05 oz.) of black powder, burst with only 7 grams (0.25 oz.) of gun cotton. With a load of 2.86 grams (0.1 oz.) of gun cotton, rifles become worn out or unusable after 500 shots, whereas it takes 25,000 to 30,000 shots with ordinary black powder."</i><br />
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<a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxii-compressed-powder.html">It was known at that time (thanks to the work of Captain Thomas Rodman of the United States Army) that greater performance could be obtained by powder that burned slower with gradually increasing pressure, than with powder that burned violently in a short period</a>. This is why many experiments were done to reduce the rate of combustion, such as the 1865 development of a smokeless powder by <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2017/01/smokeless-powders-further-developments.html">Colonel Schultze</a> in Germany. This was later improved by Frederick Volkmann of Austria, who improved the Schultze process and came up with a powder called Collodine. This was manufactured between 1872 and 1875, but the factory closed down in 1875, due to an Austrian state monopoly on powder manufacture. Some other similar powders were also made in the US (Reid in 1882). Most of these powders found some success as hunting powders.<br />
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One of the attempts to reduce combustion rates led to the production of <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxiii-prismatic-powder.html">prismatic powders</a>, but this was only a partial success, because even when compacted properly, it didn't always burn progressively. Additionally, prismatic powder being a black powder, it produced a lot of smoke and residue. Meanwhile, the hunting powders in the paragraph above had the same issue of not burning evenly as well, due to lack of a consistent shape and uniform composition of the material.<br />
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It was in the 1870s that the French government decided to form a committee to study of the fundamentals of the combustion process of powders. The objectives of this group were to predict the ballistic behavior of a projectile from the characteristics of the explosive material and the weapon used. To do this, it was necessary to understand the process of combustion of the powder, the formation of gases at various temperatures and pressures, the movement of the projectile in the barrel and the its trajectory in the air etc. Such an analysis is very complex and it involves numerous subjects and disciplines that were not yet well understood in the 19th century: chemical thermodynamics, ballistics, mechanics of explosive reactions etc.<br />
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Way back in 1839, a French General named Guillaume Piobert had studied the combustion process of black powder and theorized that "burning takes place by parallel layers where the surface of the grain regresses, layer by layer, normal to the surface at every point." He concluded that combustion rates of the powder is affected by the layers and pressure has no effect on the combustion rate. We now know of this discovery as Piobert's law and it applies to solid propellants in general (not just black powder), but when he first proposed it, it was a very controversial theory.<br />
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In the light of new discoveries made since, the French decided to revisit his work in the 1870s. A famous French chemist named Pierre Eugene Marcellin Berthelot had already conducted several studies on chemical thermodynamics and explosions and he was appointed head of the French explosives committee.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDN4WZWagpjV2exXC5zsTr0notXHVwDcuGdgkK2jPZiqpJk8CMEKDLl0ht30jOeJSPAA7vko92XkteBW8SZkLgTTltNM8RBh1l50rvIWvKGeAUmfLNvQUUKB3QikQvunT1gNlbm5XuI2qm/s1600/Marcellin_Berthelot.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDN4WZWagpjV2exXC5zsTr0notXHVwDcuGdgkK2jPZiqpJk8CMEKDLl0ht30jOeJSPAA7vko92XkteBW8SZkLgTTltNM8RBh1l50rvIWvKGeAUmfLNvQUUKB3QikQvunT1gNlbm5XuI2qm/s320/Marcellin_Berthelot.jpg" width="254" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Pierre Eugene Marcellin Berthelot.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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In his group were a couple of people, Emile Sarrau, the manager of the French Depot Central des poudres et salpetres, and his new deputy, Paul Vieille, then only 27 years old and a recent university graduate.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhzGzdBKtsl8OCZkry-dU277DGkAfpmCMZwzzEqYd2oupRzeVAoEUgOmC1hEnSvsv3vQ7KjMM7lD31R401L5v_VPaw0Xw6tHX7nhOXy08jgXUFv4ohRnV9q-heBsHV6NWnlbQY2KrFpZWE/s1600/Paul_Vielle.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhzGzdBKtsl8OCZkry-dU277DGkAfpmCMZwzzEqYd2oupRzeVAoEUgOmC1hEnSvsv3vQ7KjMM7lD31R401L5v_VPaw0Xw6tHX7nhOXy08jgXUFv4ohRnV9q-heBsHV6NWnlbQY2KrFpZWE/s1600/Paul_Vielle.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Paul Vieille</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Image released under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.</span></div>
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Sarrau and Vieille were tasked with the study of an apparatus called the crusher manometer (or crusher gauge), which was used to measure explosive forces. The device was invented by a British officer, one Captain Andrew Noble in the 1860s and he published a research on explosives along with the above mentioned Frederick Abel.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhu3Ys6QnLRamaophBm5gYC93MZxHml6uafruT0wstNMeEsAUCnRK6H6G40ZWTA1D9LiSEvj-R5DfBuQ7JEm0XKQxVdHXjvCgCAt5PVix8yMETCfWS6nXm9Ij93TO_tmYmFg9-G23XS37rX/s1600/crusher-gauge.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhu3Ys6QnLRamaophBm5gYC93MZxHml6uafruT0wstNMeEsAUCnRK6H6G40ZWTA1D9LiSEvj-R5DfBuQ7JEm0XKQxVdHXjvCgCAt5PVix8yMETCfWS6nXm9Ij93TO_tmYmFg9-G23XS37rX/s320/crusher-gauge.JPG" width="268" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Crusher Manometer invented by Noble and Abel.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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The Noble apparatus consists of crushing a small copper cylinder placed between a fixed anvil and a moveable piston and calculating the maximum pressure by measuring the deformation of the cylinder and comparing it against similar copper cylinders compressed under known loads. We already studied this process a few years ago, when we studied <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2011/01/testing-firearms-measuring-chamber.html">how chamber pressures were measured</a>.<br />
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However, this process only gives approximate results, because there wasn't an accurate way to produce standard cylinders to measure against. It was possible to subject two identical cylinders to the same pressure and end up with different amounts of deformation. So Sarrau and Vieille began to improve the process of producing standard cylinders to measure against. They invented two methods to do so: in the first method, the cylinder was crushed slowly, until it bore a predetermined weight without further deformation. In the second method, a counterweight was moved slowly along the arm, with the aim of uniformly increasing the load supported by the copper cylinder, from zero load to a predetermined value. However, the crusher gauge only showed the maximum pressure of the explosion. In 1882, Vieille also invented a mechanical device to record the pressures generated over time for an explosion. His invention was a modification of the crusher gauge: he attached a pen to the piston, so it would produce a mark on a cylinder which was turning at a known speed. With this piece of equipment, he could measure the pressure curve of an explosion as well.<br />
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Vieille and Sarrau proved by the study of the crusher gauge, that explosives must be classified into two categories: that which have slower rates of combustion (low explosives) such as black powder, and those that have a fast rate of explosion (greater than speed of sound, i.e. high explosives) such as gun cotton and picrates. They found that previous studies on the maximum pressures of explosives were not quite correct because the height of the crushed cylinder depends on the piston mass and the speed of combustion. They developed rules and procedures to give exact measurements of maximum pressures generated by explosions and within the next few years, Vieille would use some of these studies to develop a new type of smokeless powder. We will study how that happened in the next post.<br />
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<br />The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-12049515575111167792017-01-17T00:38:00.002-08:002017-01-17T01:47:30.754-08:00Smokeless Powders: Further Developments by Abel and SchultzeIn our <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2017/01/smokeless-powders-von-lenk-process.html">last post</a>, we studied some discoveries by Baron Von Lenk, who succeeded in developing a process to manufacture gun cotton in larger quantities. The Austrian empire adopted his gun cotton as a propellant to replace black powder and supplied thirty howitzer batteries with gun cotton cartridges, as well as a new model of the Lorenz rifle (the M1862 model) to use gun cotton. Two factories in Austria started to manufacture gun cotton based on his process.<br />
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The gun cotton, as made by Von Lenk's process, retained the fibrous nature of the original cotton. The Austrians spun it into threads and braided them together, or wound them on wooden or paper bobbins, and arranged them in cartridges, so as to secure the desired air gaps in between and insure proper ignition. The Austrians found that this propellant was not affected by dampness, only required a charge of 1/4th to 1/3rd of the amount of black powder previously used, left less residue inside the barrel, produced less smoke and the gases evolved were also less harmful to the weapons and the men around them. France and England got interested in his discoveries and sent scientists to study the Austrian process as much as they were willing to reveal and Von Lenk also lent his expertise to scientists from both countries.<br />
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Unfortunately, there was an accident in 1862 in the factory at Hirtenberg, Austria, which blew up for some unknown reason. Soon after this, a British company called Thomas Prentice & Co. started to manufacture gun cotton in 1863, in a town called Stowmarket in England. Shortly thereafter, Sir Frederick Abel also began to research producing nitrocellulose safely at the Royal Gunpowder Mills at Waltham Abbey, England. His process was based on<a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2017/01/smokeless-powders-von-lenk-process.html"> Von Lenk's process</a> as described in our previous post, but he effected a more complete purification of the gun cotton by pulping it before the final washing process, thereby cutting the tubular fibers into short lengths and rendering it possible to remove the last traces of acid retained within the tubes by capillary action. Traces of acid remaining in the gun cotton was what caused it to decompose over time. He patented this method in 1865, just around the time that the second Austrian factory also blew up. The Austrians had also had some accidents with their guns and after the second factory blew up, they decided to stop using gun cotton in their military. Meanwhile, Abel continued to experiment in England with his pulped, purified gun cotton, which he could compress into various shapes and in 1867 and 1868, he got some very promising results when used with field artillery. However, the British military were still very wary of gun cotton and military authorities were concerned about safety issues more than the advantages of the smokeless powder technologies. Also, the Thomas Prentice & Co. factory in Stowmarket blew up in 1871 and this was another reason why the British military discontinued further research for artillery and small arms for about twenty years. Instead, the compressed gun cotton was used in naval mines and for filling torpedoes and this is where the entire gun cotton production at the Waltham Abbey factories went to for the next couple of decades.<br />
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While military interest in gun cotton had decreased, civilians were very interested in this new technology. In particular, sportsmen who liked to hunt, appreciated the lack of smoke combined with higher velocities and lack of fouling and the next few years of developments were largely done in response to their demands. Naturally, the goal was to reduce the force of the explosion, so that barrels would not rupture, as had happened in the previous years. Around 1863, a Prussian artillery officer, Captain Johann Edward Schultze, invented a powder made from well purified and partially nitrated wood. His process started by sawing the wood into thin sheets about 1/16th of an inch in thickness, which was then passed through a machine that punched out disks or grains of uniform size. The next step was to remove the resinous matter from the disks, which was done by boiling the disks in sodium carbonate solution, washing them, steaming them, bleaching them with chloride of lime and then drying them. After this, the cellulose was nitrated in an acid mixture similar to the Von Lenk process. After this, the nitrated wood was then steeped in a solution of potassium nitrate and barium nitrate and then dried, which completed the process of manufacturing process. Using this process, the nitrocellulose that was produced was diluted with unconverted cellulose and metallic nitrates, which allowed for an even rate of combustion.<br />
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The advantage of using nitrates and organic substances as diluents was soon copied by other people and many other powders were soon on the market, using potassium, sodium and barium nitrates, and potassium nitrate (saltpeter), while sugar, cellulose, charcoal, sulfur, starch, gums, resins and paraffin were all used as combustible diluents and cementing agents.<br />
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Schultze started manufacturing his smokeless powder in a factory in Potsdam, near Berlin, around 1864. His powder soon gained popularity among civilian hunters. However, in 1868, there was a major fire in his factory and it burned to the ground. Shortly after this event, over in England, near a town called Fritham in the New Forest area, at a site called Eyeworth Lodge, a new factory called the <i>Schultze Gunpowder Factory</i> was established by two businessmen, Clement Dale and William Bailey. There was already an earlier attempt about 7 years previously to establish a black powder factory at the same site, which was not successful. The new owners hoped to capitalize on smokeless powder technology as well as the name of Captain Schultze, from whom they obtained a license to manufacture the powder. It must be noted that while Captain Schultze was not really directly involved with the new Schultze Gunpowder Factory, they did use his original manufacturing process and subsequently improved it over the years as well.<br />
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Initially, the factory was not very successful and in 1871, they only had four employees. The November 1872 edition of Popular Science had this to say about the factory and its production process:<br />
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<span style="color: red;"><i>"Here and there at intervals wide apart are various buildings of light structure from one of which rises a tall chimney instrumental in raising steam to drive a 10HP sawing machine which rapidly creates the "wood powder". This is subjected to chemical washing leaving hardly anything behind save pure woody material, known as lignine or cellulose. The next operation involves the conversion of these cellulose grains into a sort of gun cotton material by digestion with a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids. Next it is washed with carbonate of soda and dried. The resultant grains are stored away until the time of packaging and dispatch when they are charged with a definite percentage of a nitrate powder -- nitrate of baryta is preferred. All the buildings requisite for manufacturing this explosive are cheap and flimsy so that if they did catch fire no loss would ensue. The plant and machinery is of small cost in comparison to that used for making black gunpowder and Schultze wood powder is sold at a price commensurate with its cheap production."</i></span><br />
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In 1874, a talented self-taught chemist named R.W.S. Griffiths was appointed as the general manager and he refined the production process. Soon after this, the company began to become famous for the quality of its powder, particularly after samples of powder were successfully tried out in a series of trials organized by The Field magazine. By 1878, it became a leader in the world's sporting powder market. Many of the famous cartridge manufacturers, such as Eley Brothers, Kynoch and Union Metallic Cartridge Co. (UMC), used Schultze powder in their cartridges. The company rapidly expanded and the population of the local village of Fritham expanded with it, causing a reservoir, a new church, a store and workers houses to be built. Nevertheless, powder manufacturing remained a dangerous process and therefore, the wages for workers at that factory were around double that of those working in agriculture at that time.<br />
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At its peak, the Schultze Gunpowder Factory also opened offices in Gresham Street, London and had agents in various cities around the world. They became the largest manufacturer of smokeless powder for sporting use and produced about 75% of the world's supply. In 1897, they formed an American branch in conjunction with E.C. Gunpowder Co. and called it American E.C. & Schultze Gunpowder.<br />
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One of the most famous users of Schultze powders was the legendary American exhibition shooter, Annie Oakley, who was the star of Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxUPu5VzJO6l_WB90Mn6OnWJ_wW_sDY5GgszQqw0tTMVOF-J5BFkxy9YyvM6dZt1quBArhXgfDdG198KRrnPk9OjW0B0BTD2ZuQuYKtt4BLoO9RQAWyPQvFkymS4FedrH9cR9_QrCCO_86/s1600/Annie_Oakley.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxUPu5VzJO6l_WB90Mn6OnWJ_wW_sDY5GgszQqw0tTMVOF-J5BFkxy9YyvM6dZt1quBArhXgfDdG198KRrnPk9OjW0B0BTD2ZuQuYKtt4BLoO9RQAWyPQvFkymS4FedrH9cR9_QrCCO_86/s320/Annie_Oakley.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">The legendary Annie Oakley. Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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Annie Oakley had mentioned in several interviews, that she only used Schultze powder for her performances. Interestingly, when the Wild West Show toured France in 1889, she brought along fifty pounds of Schultze powder with her and then discovered at the dock that there was a French law that forbade the import of foreign gunpowders! At that time, the quality of French powders was not as good, because of a government monopoly on powder manufacturing and she didn't have the time to experiment with a new brand anyway. Fearing that her accuracy would be affected, there was only one thing she could do: smuggle the powder in! She obtained five hot-water bottles and enlisted four other lady riders with the show as co-conspirators. They filled the hot-water bottles with Schultze powder and each woman wore a dress with a bustle, hiding the bottles within. In fact, Annie had never worn a bustle in her life before that day, but she admitted that on this occasion she was glad to do so. She led the women safely through the customs line and into France. As she later admitted, "We sure did attract some attention when we went down the gang plank, for although the bustle originated in France, it was going out of fashion at that time". Even then, as the tour went on in France, her supply of powder eventually ran out and her shooting accuracy was affected because she had to use French powder. In fact, the French powder exploded one of her best guns and gave her a big bruise and her husband noted that no matter how carefully one loaded French powder into cartridges, no two ever fired alike. Luckily for her, in Marseilles, she received a notice to go to the Customs House to pick up a box mailed to her by some friends in England. The box was rather large and inside it were two dozen fresh eggs and an unsigned note telling her that she should try the packing material out in her gun before throwing it away. The eggs were packed in Schultze powder! She gladly paid the 40 cent import duty on the eggs and as she reported, "I never shot better in my life than I did the next three days, either winning or dividing every event. It may be that I was in better form, but I'm sure my Schultze load had a great deal to do with my good scores."<br />
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By the early 1900s, Schultze Gunpowder Company expanded so much that they had to move to Redbridge in Southampton, which was more suitable for transportation of its products. However, the company really suffered during the World War I period due to anti-German sentiment. In fact, the company had to take out newspaper advertisements declaring that despite their German-sounding name, all the owners, management and workers were British! Soon afterwards, a bunch of British powder manufacturers all combined together to form Nobel Industries, which later combined with three other companies in 1920 to form ICI (Imperial Chemical Industries),which was Britain's largest manufacturer for most of its history. This was around the time that the Schultze factory at Eyeworth Lodge was closed. All that remains there today are a few buildings and a farm.<br />
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In our next post, we will how gun cotton started to attract the interest of militaries once again.<br />
<br />The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-74651270419325222762017-01-16T00:02:00.000-08:002017-01-16T23:08:10.386-08:00Smokeless Powders: The Von Lenk ProcessIn our last post, we learned that an Austrian officer, Wilhelm Freiherr Lenk von Wolfsberg, had come up with a method to produce gun cotton efficiently. We will study more about his exact process in today's post:<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi03UPxS3i6sxlNopg_vvPbiokavrM5AM69xKklf1kW5AJYt8AgT20knmDwI6jD32QUnx4MlFrlhtfQBB0oFyPg_r0kCr7rt5GIwxhqb3LHB-SCgAsnWRFJkSpPhqxp5www0SbOLjfaULws/s1600/Wilhelm_Freiherr_Lenk_von_Wolfsberg_in_1866.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi03UPxS3i6sxlNopg_vvPbiokavrM5AM69xKklf1kW5AJYt8AgT20knmDwI6jD32QUnx4MlFrlhtfQBB0oFyPg_r0kCr7rt5GIwxhqb3LHB-SCgAsnWRFJkSpPhqxp5www0SbOLjfaULws/s320/Wilhelm_Freiherr_Lenk_von_Wolfsberg_in_1866.png" width="211" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Baron von Lenk in 1866. Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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The Von Lenk process involves the following general guidelines:</div>
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<ol>
<li>The cotton should be cleansed and perfectly dessicated (i.e. dried out) previous to its immersion in acids.</li>
<li>The acids used should be the strongest available.</li>
<li>The steeping of the cotton in a fresh strong mixture of acids after the first immersion and partial conversion into gun cotton.</li>
<li>The steeping should be continued for 48 hours.</li>
<li>The gun cotton should be thoroughly purified afterwards and every trace of free acid should be removed.</li>
</ol>
The process started by spinning the cotton into hanks of about 85 grams (about 3 oz.) each, suspended on hooks in a hot solution of potash. An under-heated iron boiler was used for this purpose, the water in the boiler containing sufficient potash to give it a specific gravity of about 1.022. The cotton was immersed in the boiling potash solution for about 2 to 3 minutes, according to the amount of grease contained in the cotton strands. The potash solution acts as a soap and removes the grease. Then the cotton hanks were put in a centrifugal machine and spun around at high speeds to drive out some of the potash solution (the same idea is used in modern washing machines as well). Then the cotton hanks were put in perforated zinc baskets and swung to-and-fro in pure water to remove any remaining traces of soap, after which they were wrung out again and allowed to completely dry out. This completed the stage 1 of the process, cleaning out the cotton and drying it.</div>
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The acid mixture was prepared by taking strong nitric acid of specific gravity 1.48 to 1.49 (at 17.5° C or 63.5° F) and strong sulfuric acid of 1.835 specific gravity and streaming them from two taps into an earthenware vessel. The proportion was usually 1 part of nitric acid to three parts of sulfuric acid. The process of mixing the two acids produces heat, so the mixture was allowed to cool in the earthenware jars and stored until ready for use.<br />
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The nitration process was done in cast-iron dipping pans divided into three compartments, with a grating fitted over the middle one. Two hanks of cotton at a time were put into 300 times their weight of acid mixture in the first two compartments of a dipping pan. The hanks were turned over and squeezed with spatulas until the acid had completely penetrated through the cotton hanks. Next, they were transferred to the grating and squeezed again to free out most of the excess acid, the cotton being allowed to retain about 9.5 parts of acid. When about 2 kg. (4.4 lbs.) of cotton had been treated this way, the acid mixture was emptied out and fresh acid was put into the dipping pan. When six hanks of cotton had been nitrated, they were put into another earthenware pot standing in the third compartment of the dipping pan. A weighted disk was put into the pot to make sure that the cotton was completely submerged in the acid and then the pot was closed with a lid and allowed to stand for between 24 to 48 hours in a special temperature-controlled room, where the temperature was not allowed to fall below 5° C (41° F) or go above 25° C (77° F). In order to maintain the temperature within these limits (remember that air-conditioning technology wasn't really well developed yet), the room had to be heated during winter and the exterior of the pots was cooled by running water in the summer. During the first two to six hours, the pots had to be watched carefully and the heating was prevented either by adding some fresh acid or passing cold water around the pots.<br />
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After the nitration was finished, the crude gun-cotton was then put into centrifugal machines and spun around again to remove some of the excess acid. Then they were washed with a large quantity of water in copper drums and then finally treated in running water in special washing boxes for six weeks. The gun-cotton was then wrung out again in a centrifugal machine, treated with a boiling potash solution, then again through the centrifugal machine, washed with pure water, through the centrifugal machine once more and then dried. After this, it was dipped into a solution of sodium silicate of 1.072 specific gravity, then a spin cycle through a centrifugal machine again and then finally exposed to the air for three days. During this time, the sodium silicate was decomposed by the action of carbonic acid in the air and silica (or an insoluble silicate) would precipitate on the fibers of the gun-cotton. After three days, the product was again washed in pure water, passed through another spin cycle in the centrifugal machine and then dried in open air, or in a drying house, at a temperature not exceeding 35° C (95° F) and making sure to avoid direct exposure to the sun's rays. While all of this washing and wringing the cotton in the centrifugal machines may seem excessive, it was necessary to do this to ensure that even minute traces of acid were removed from the treated gun-cotton, in order to ensure its stability.<br />
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This process would yield about 165-167 parts of gun-cotton for every 100 parts of dry untreated cotton. The structure of the gun cotton threads were carefully examined and hanks containing torn threads were discarded. Then, a small portion of the gun cotton was <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2012/10/testing-black-powder-quality.html">tested for strength</a> and if found satisfactory, the batch was packed.<br />
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Unlike the processes of previous inventors such as Schonbein, Otto etc., which could only be used to manufacture small quantities at a time, Von Lenk's process could be scaled up to produce large quantities.<br />
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Baron Von Lenk patented his process and was invited to give lectures in France and England detailing his methods. While in France, he was personally awarded the Commander's Cross of the Legion of Honor from Emperor Napolean III and was also given a box studded with diamonds for his discoveries.<br />
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In Austria, another army officer, Ritter von Lorenz (Joseph Lorenz) was working on the design of a rifle which was first approved in 1854 and subsequently updated in the following years. The version that was manufactured in 1862 used a steel barrel instead of a cast-iron one, in order to use gun-cotton cartridges. The gun-cotton cartridges and the M1862 Lorenz rifle model came to the attention of Dr. Theodore Canisius, the US consul to Austria at that time. Dr. Canisius saw the advantages of gun-cotton over black powder and began to send back regular reports to the State Department about various Austrian experiments with gun-cotton propellants. In August 1863, Dr. Canisius returned to the US with an M1862 Lorenz rifle and some Austrian ammunition samples, and arranged meetings with several key officials (including then Secretary of State, William Seward, Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton and some military officers) to try and convince them to adopt this new technology. While the military were not entirely convinced, the Austrian military had decided to switch to gun-cotton entirely and therefore, a lot of their Lorenz rifles designed for black powder were now available for sale. As a result of this, a large number of Lorenz rifles were purchased by both the Union and Confederate sides during the US Civil war, with the Union purchasing over 225000 rifles and the Confederates buying 100,000 rifles. In fact, the Lorenz rifle was the third most used rifle during the Civil war.<br />
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However, Von Lenk's process was abandoned by Austria around the end of 1865, due to explosions in two factories and a fear about the stability of gun-cotton. Nevertheless, scientists in other countries were hard at work trying to improve on his processes. The next breakthroughs were by a Prussian artillery officer, Johann Edward Schultze, a French scientist, Paul Vielle and a British scientist, Sir Frederick Abel, and we will study about their discoveries in the next few posts.<br />
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The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-74582258456962176682016-12-30T21:33:00.000-08:002016-12-31T02:06:23.347-08:00Smokeless Powders: Productionizing Gun Cotton: Early ExperimentsIn our <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/12/smokeless-powders-invention-of-gun.html">last post</a>, we saw how gun cotton was accidentally discovered. As was mentioned in our previous post, some early researches were done by French scientists, namely Henri Braconnot in 1832 and Theophile-Jules Pelouze in 1838, but the Swiss scientist Christian Schönbein in 1845, was the first to realize its potential to be used in firearms as a replacement for black powder. Schönbein sent out samples of his discovery to friends in England in 1846 and published details about his discovery, but kept his method of preparation a secret until he received a patent for his discovery. Schönbein also worked with a German scientist from the University of Frankfurt named Rudolf Böttger, who had discovered the same process independently during 1845, to improve the manufacturing process. By a strange coincidence, another German, a professor from the town of Braunschweig, Dr. F. J. Otto also made a similar discovery and published his process details in 1846 before Schönbein and Böttger,<br />
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The discoveries of Schönbein soon attracted the attentions of many other chemists (mostly French and German), who investigated the properties and chemical composition and came up with different variants. Some of these names include the above mentioned Pelouze (who revisited his earlier research and came up with a new process in 1846), Dr. Knopp, Dr. Bley, Von Kirchoff & Reuter, Porret, Teschemacher, Walter Crum and Dr. J.H. Gladstone.<br />
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In England, a company called John Hall & Sons Co. bought the patent rights to manufacture gun cotton from Schönbein in 1846 and built a new factory to do so at Faversham in early 1847. Unfortunately for them, the process and its associated dangers was not fully understood and a few months later, on 14th July 1847, there was a huge explosion that destroyed the factory and killed many workers, leading to the factory being closed soon afterwards. The manufacture of gun cotton was not attempted in Faversham again until 1873, when a different company opened a new plant at a new location outside town. But this was not the only tragedy -- only a year later, on 17th July 1848, 1600 kg. of gun cotton exploded in a factory at Bouchet near Paris. This explosion was so powerful that walls from 18 inches to a yard in thickness were reduced to powder, and heavy weights were hurled to great distances. These and other accidents, caused the French and German governments to appoint committees to study whether manufacturing of gun cotton was worthwhile or not. After 6 years of experiments, the French Commission reported that, "In the present condition of things, there is no use in continuing the experiments in relation to employment of gun-cotton in warlike arms."<br />
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However, all was not lost. Over in Austria, an officer named <b>Wilhelm Freiherr Lenk von Wolfsberg</b> (also known as <b>Baron von Lenk</b> and <b>Von Lenk</b>) was conducting his own experiments in 1849 on behalf of the Austrian military. Von Lenk was serving in a Field Artillery regiment when he began his experiments and he discovered the cause of the previous failures. He came up with a process of manufacture that was both safer and profitable. Due to his researches, a factory "K. K. Ärarische Schießwollanstalt" was set up in Hirtenberg to manufacture gun cotton in 1851. This factory was later absorbed into a larger artillery arms company that still exists today, Hirtenberger AG.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHhQXuHmvMsbl6XaERjUPCWUiwdtXUAab1RzQvrD-VrHqnHe5w-LtEVfG66cvCOjYKEKwxqSeznn_QtkxY6_-9ObEpM6pIIp2uBchP4fsOvwA0NzK8I_aNHrFrBYHBJlJtkivB8Yi03eoa/s1600/baron-von-lenk.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHhQXuHmvMsbl6XaERjUPCWUiwdtXUAab1RzQvrD-VrHqnHe5w-LtEVfG66cvCOjYKEKwxqSeznn_QtkxY6_-9ObEpM6pIIp2uBchP4fsOvwA0NzK8I_aNHrFrBYHBJlJtkivB8Yi03eoa/s400/baron-von-lenk.jpg" width="238" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Major General Baron Von Lenk in 1865. Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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The developments in Austria naturally attracted the attention of several European governments, and from England, a Major Young was sent over to Austria to learn everything that the Austrians were willing to disclose. In 1862, a committee was appointed by the British Association to inquire into the application of the new explosives for war purposes. The committee consisted of 3 chemists, the previously mentioned Dr. J.H. Gladstone, Professor W.A. Miller and Professor Frankland, and 6 engineers, William Fairbairn, J, Whitworth, James Nasmyth, J. Scott Russell, J. Anderson and Sir W.G. Armstrong. In case you think some names sound familiar, J. Whitworth is the gent that invented the <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2010/05/rifling-polygonal-bore-and-whitworth.html">Whitworth rifle</a> and W.G. Armstrong invented the Armstrong gun and they later co-founded Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., a major armaments, shipbuilding, aircraft and engineering company. James Nasmyth is known for inventing the steam hammer, while John Scott Russell was an engineer who built the Great Eastern steamship, which was the largest ship in the world for 40 years. This superstar committee talked to General Von Lenk and presented a report in 1863 at Newcastle, with some details of the Von Lenk process which will be described below:<br />
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In the manufacture of gun-cotton, the end-goal is to produce a product that is as highly nitrated as possible. Von Lenk found that, in order to ensure the production of this, it was necessary to adopt several procedures, the most important of which were specified as:<br />
<br />
<ol>
<li>The cotton should be cleansed and perfectly dessicated (i.e. dried out) previous to its immersion in acids.</li>
<li>The acids used should be the strongest available.</li>
<li>The steeping of the cotton in a fresh strong mixture of acids after the first immersion and partial conversion into gun cotton.</li>
<li>The steeping should be continued for 48 hours.</li>
<li>The gun cotton should be thoroughly purified afterwards and every trace of free acid should be removed. This was done by washing the product in a stream of water for several weeks; subsequently a weak solution of potash could be used as a final wash, but this wasn't essential.</li>
</ol>
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We will study more details about the Von Lenk process in our next post.</div>
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The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-12677276983279136122016-12-27T22:37:00.000-08:002016-12-27T22:37:24.152-08:00Smokeless Powders: The Invention of Gun CottonIn today's post, we will study one of the earliest developments in smokeless powder technology: the invention of <b>gun cotton</b>.<br />
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In 1832, a French chemist named Henri Braconnot found that mixing nitric acid and wood fibers would produce a very explosive material. A few years later in 1838, another Frenchman, Theophile-Jules Pelouze, produced explosive materials by treating paper and cardboard with nitric acid. However, both these discoveries very highly unstable and could not be used for practical explosives. It was left to a Swiss chemist named Christian Schönbein to discover a more practical solution. The discovery of gun cotton was actually the result of an accident:<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJVytqRr_6xTyUgT2sSPDgcg7uLb3qKefIZgYETspguORuozQePNM7B61Fihcjo6mYCB5R6fGfERS10i6kPeFGfR1QAoNHT7IK0kM16lhA0d1nvM4jAjcI4zcJrrYs4mJ3HhwoB6BdnUfQ/s1600/Schonbein.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJVytqRr_6xTyUgT2sSPDgcg7uLb3qKefIZgYETspguORuozQePNM7B61Fihcjo6mYCB5R6fGfERS10i6kPeFGfR1QAoNHT7IK0kM16lhA0d1nvM4jAjcI4zcJrrYs4mJ3HhwoB6BdnUfQ/s1600/Schonbein.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Christian Schönbein. Public domain image.</span></div>
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Schönbein was a professor of chemistry at the University of Basel in Switzerland. His wife laid down an order to not conduct any chemical experiments at home, but he didn't always obey her and would do his experiments at home when she was not around. One day in 1845, his wife went out for some time and he went into the kitchen and mixed up a combination of nitric acid and sulfuric acid. Due to careless handling, he spilled the mixture onto the kitchen table. He quickly grabbed his wife's cotton apron and wiped the mess up and then hung her apron over the stove to dry, so she would not find out that he'd been doing experiments at home when she was away. To his surprise, the apron suddenly ignited and burned very rapidly, leaving almost no ash behind. What he had done was accidentally create nitrocellulose (gun cotton).<br />
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Let us understand the chemistry behind what he'd accidentally invented. The manufacture of guncotton (and other nitro compounds) consists of immersing the material (cotton, wood fibers, paper etc.) in a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids and allowing the nitric acid to act upon it for a certain amount of time. The explosive material that is formed is then separated from the acids and washed until it loses all traces of acid. For example, in the case of gun cotton, the following reaction happens:<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>20</sub>O<sub>10</sub> + 6HNO<sub>3</sub> = C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>14</sub>O<sub>4</sub>(O.NO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>6</sub> + 6H<sub>2</sub>O</div>
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The cellulose combines with the nitric acid forming nitrocellulose and water (<span style="text-align: center;">H</span><sub style="text-align: center;">2</sub><span style="text-align: center;">O). It would appear from this above equation that only nitric acid is needed for this</span> reaction. However, note that one of the other byproducts of this reaction is water, which would end up diluting the remaining nitric acid and cause it to form other nitro-compounds instead. This is where the sulfuric acid comes in. The sulfuric acid takes care of the water formed by this reaction and also acts as a catalyst to form the <span style="text-align: center;">NO</span><sub style="text-align: center;">2</sub> ions.<br />
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In the original version of his process, Schönbein mixed three parts of sulfuric acid to one part of nitric acid by weight. Then, he would take twenty to thirty parts of this acid mixture into a porcelain vessel and dip one part of cotton at a temperature of around 10° to 15° C for an hour. After that, the liquid was poured out and the gun cotton was thoroughly washed in water and then in a dilute potash solution to eliminate acids. It was then again washed in water to dissolve any salts formed from the previous washing, then squeezed out to remove the water, then soaked in 0.6% solution of saltpeter, squeezed out again and finally dried at 65° C. Later on, Schönbein modified this process to use 14 parts of a mixture of equal volumes of nitric and sulfuric acids, to each part of cotton.<br />
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Gun cotton produces about six times the amount of gas than the same volume of black powder, while producing far less smoke and heat.<br />
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Now that we've studied the reaction at a high level, we will look at some of the machinery used for this process in the next few posts.The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-84659664293250345262016-12-23T23:47:00.001-08:002016-12-23T23:48:15.233-08:00Smokeless Powders: IntroductionIn the last several months, we have studied the production of various forms of black powder in depth. The next series of posts will deal with an in-depth study of <b>smokeless powders</b>. We had studied about this <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2010/06/propellants-smokeless-powders.html">some years ago</a>, but not really in detail.<br />
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So why smokeless powder?? First, let's go over some disadvantages of black powder:<br />
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<ol>
<li>It is very flammable. Black powder can easily be ignited by a single stray spark, hard impact or a hot object and therefore, it requires careful handling.</li>
<li>It leaves a lot of residue behind, which can cause fouling problems inside the firearm. The residue is also caustic, which can cause corrosion issues if it is not removed quickly. What this means is that firearms that use black powder need to be cleaned after firing just a few shots. </li>
<li>Black powder also produces a lot of smoke upon ignition. In fact, many infantry troops using black powder weapons faced a problem on the battlefield in that after firing a few shots, they would no longer be able to see the enemy due to the clouds of smoke produced by their own weapons.</li>
<li>Black powder is hygroscopic (i.e.) it absorbs water from the atmosphere. This causes two problems: the first is that presence of water makes the powder less efficient and may even spoil it to the point where it doesn't ignite reliably. The second problem is that remnants of black powder in a firearm can cause the metal to rust rapidly. Due to this, it was necessary to clean firearms thoroughly immediately after use, especially in humid areas, in order to prevent the formation of rust.</li>
<li>Black powder does not ignite when wet. This caused many soldiers to have their firearms rendered useless during rainstorms. This is the reason why many soldiers also carried a sword or a spear as a backup weapon.</li>
</ol>
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By contrast, smokeless powders offer more propulsive power than the same weight of black powder and leave a lot less smoke and residue behind. This makes it possible to not only increase the range of firearms, but also shoot for longer periods of time without cleaning the weapon -- this is what made it possible to develop semi-automatic and automatic firearms. Early smokeless powders were somewhat unstable, but as technology improved, they became a lot more stable than black powder and don't require as much careful handling. They are also not affected by rainy weather and can even ignite underwater. </div>
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With that said, there are a few misnomers about smokeless powder that we should clear up before we go in-depth with our study. First, the name is misleading: smokeless powder is not actually 100% smokeless. There is some smoke produced, but it is much less than that produced by black powder. The second misnomer is that there is no single formula for smokeless powder. In fact, there are multiple types of smokeless powders, each made with different chemicals. This is unlike black powder, where the three ingredients are always carbon, sulfur and potassium nitrate (albeit with different proportions of the ingredients and different grain sizes).</div>
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In our next post, we will study the first development in the family of smokeless powders: guncotton.</div>
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The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-78971555433826148282016-12-04T18:19:00.001-08:002016-12-04T18:19:18.064-08:00Black Powder - Chemical ExaminationIn our last few posts, we saw how people would determine the quality of black powder by measuring the physical properties of the powder, such as <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/10/examining-black-powder-quality-i.html">color, size, shape</a>, <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/11/examining-black-powder-quality-ii.html">density</a>, <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/11/examining-black-powder-quality-iii.html">hygroscopic properties</a> etc. In today's post, we will study some of the chemical properties that people would examine to determine the quality of powder.<br />
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The first type of test was the <b>Qualitative Examination </b>test, which was done if the ingredients of the powder were not known (e.g. some powders did not have sulfur, others may have sodium nitrate instead of potassium nitrate, still others may have charcoal made of wood, wood pulp, bark, straw etc.).<br />
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Recall a few months ago, we had stated that <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/07/black-powder-ii.html">black powder is a mixture and not a compound</a> at room temperature. It only forms various chemical compounds when it starts to burn. Therefore, since it is a mixture, it retains properties of its component parts.<br />
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Therefore, to determine the kind of nitrate contained in the powder, a small quantity of powder would be put in a filter and then hot water poured over it, which dissolves the nitrate salt. The filtered liquid was then chemically analyzed to determine the type of nitrate. Next, to determine if the powder contains sulfur or not, a small quantity was placed in a beaker and carbon disulfide was poured on top and allowed to stand for a little while. The solution was then poured out and evaporated. If any sulfur was present in the powder sample, it would crystallize out. To determine the type of charcoal used, they would first remove the sulfur from the sample using the carbon disulfide solution, then they would filter it and then wash with hot water to extract the saltpeter out, then they would dry out the remaining residue and examine it under a microscope, which would show whether the carbon was made from charcoal, wood pulp, wood bark, straw etc.<br />
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Of course, the above qualitative tests would show the presence of the ingredients in the powder, but not the proportions of the ingredients. To do that, they would do <b>quantitative analysis tests</b>, which determine the percentages of the ingredients. To do this, they would first dry a sample of powder as much as possible. Then, they would take a known quantity of powder, run hot water through it several times to dissolve all the saltpeter and then evaporate the solution to recover the saltpeter crystals, which could then be weighed.<br />
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After the saltpeter had been removed from the sample of powder, the next was to determine the amount of sulfur in the remaining sample. This could be done either directly, or by converting the sulfur into sulfuric acid. The direct method was due to Berzilius: The sample of powder after the saltpeter was extracted, was dried and weighed and then transferred into one of the bulbs of a double bulbed tube. A current of dry hydrogen was passed over the mixture while it was gradually heated. This heat would cause the sulfur to vaporize and the sulfur fumes would be carried along with the current of hydrogen into the second bulb, where it would cool down and crystallize in the second bulb. The decrease in weight in the first bulb and the increase in weight in the second bulb could be measured and this would show the amount of sulfur in the sample. Another technique was to dissolve the sulfur in a carbon disulfide solution and then evaporate it to recover the sulfur crystals, which could then be weighed to determine the percentage of sulfur in the sample.<br />
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After the saltpeter and sulfur have been removed, the remainder was dried and weighed to determine the amount of carbon in the sample.<br />
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It is also possible to determine all the components of black powder simultaneously, using special apparatus, such as that invented by Linck in the 19th century.<br />
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Click on the images to enlarge. Public domain images.</span></div>
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This involves using various pieces of equipment to precisely extract the components of the powder, using carbon disulfide, hot water, barium chloride, lead acetate etc. to determine the exact quantities of the various ingredients in the sample.<br />
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<br />The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-85785085066254475892016-11-25T22:14:00.000-08:002016-11-26T08:01:39.630-08:00Examining Black Powder Quality - IIIIn our <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/11/examining-black-powder-quality-ii.html">last post</a>, we studied one physical property (density) that was used by people to judge black powder quality. Today we will study another technique that people used to judge the quality of black powder: the <b>hygroscopic properties</b> of powder.<br />
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The term "hygroscopy" refers to the phenomenon of certain substances attracting water molecules from the surrounding air and absorbing it. Examples include table salt, sugar, honey etc. This is why they are usually kept in sealed containers, otherwise they tend to absorb water from the atmosphere and spoil.<br />
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In the case of black powder, two of its three components have hygroscopic properties: saltpeter and charcoal. The saltpeter is usually hygroscopic due to the presence of impurities such as calcium salts and sodium chloride. In general, calcium sulfates or calcium oxide can react with the sodium chloride to form calcium chloride, which is very hygroscopic in nature. The calcium chloride on the surface absorbs enough water to become a liquid and dissolves some saltpeter and the solution spreads itself through all the grains by capillary action. This causes the saltpeter to be no longer evenly distributed in the powder grains. Therefore, keeping the saltpeter as pure as possible helps keep the hygroscopic properties of the powder down.<br />
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Charcoal also influences the hygroscopic properties of black powder. As a general rule of thumb, the more charcoal that the powder contains, the more water it will tend to absorb. One more interesting factor has to do with the<a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/06/historical-manufacture-of-charcoal.html"> temperature that the charcoal is manufactured</a> at. The lower the temperature at which it was manufactured, the more water it can absorb. As a result of this, <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/06/historical-manufacture-of-charcoal-ii.html">red charcoal</a> will generally absorb more water than <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/06/historical-manufacture-of-charcoal.html">black charcoal</a>.<br />
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If the powder becomes damp, it may be restored by drying in the sun or in a dry, well-ventilated room. As a general rule, if the powder does not show an efflorescence of white crystals of saltpeter on its surface, it may be possible to dry it. Powder of smaller <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/11/examining-black-powder-quality-ii.html">gravimetric density</a> will absorb more moisture than a powder of a greater one, and a <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xiv-dusting-and-glazing.html">glazed powder</a> will absorb less moisture than an unglazed one, all other things being equal. Powder that has become damp can be easily recognized by its unequal distribution of color and by the grains crushing more easily between the fingers. However, if it manages to absorb a large amount of moisture. the powder will form hard black lumps and if is reaches this state, the powder is generally useless and cannot be serviced.<br />
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To determine the moisture content of a sample of powder, a standard amount (usually 100 grains or 50 grams, depending on country) would be carefully weighed onto a glass plate. Then the glass plate would be placed in an oven and heated for a few hours at a specified temperature that depended upon the country (160 °F for England, 190 °F for Germany etc.) and then placed in a dessicator to cool for 20-30 minutes, after which they would weigh the sample again. The difference in weight is the amount of water absorbed by the powder sample.<br />
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To determine the tendency of a particular powder sample to absorb moisture, the powder sample was put alongside a sample of standard powder over a layer of water in a tub, which was closed air-tight and left for a period of time. The two powder samples would then be removed and the amount of water absorbed by each sample would be compared. This test would let people know how much their particular powder differed from the standard sample powder.<br />
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In the next few posts, we will look at some of the chemical properties that people would look at to judge powder quality.<br />
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<i>Note: I trust my American readers had a happy Thanksgiving holiday so far. Your humble editor was temporarily hospitalized for a little while, but I recovered just in time to spend the holiday at home with family and friends, just as it should be :-).</i>The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-87783579733168412342016-11-06T19:20:00.000-08:002016-11-06T19:46:10.624-08:00Examining Black Powder Quality - IIIn our <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/10/examining-black-powder-quality-i.html">last post</a>, we looked at some of the physical properties (color, grain solidity, grain size etc.) that powder manufacturers would look at, while determining if the black powder was good quality or not. In today's post, we will look at some more physical properties that they would check on.<br />
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One of the properties that they would check on was the density of the black powder. Readers may recall from their physics class that density is defined as:<br />
density = mass / volume<br />
(i.e.) we take a certain amount of substance, weigh it and measure its volume and determine its density that way. Different materials have different densities, so this is a quick way to determine if the ingredients are in proper proportion with each other. This principle was famously illustrated by Archimedes, who was tasked by the King of Syracuse in Greece, with determining if his crown was of pure gold or if the goldsmith had cheated the King by mixing some other metals with the gold. Archimedes pondered on the problem and as legend has it, he was sitting in a public bath one day and saw the water overflow as he lowered his body into the tub. Then he realized he had found a solution to the problem and jumped out of the bath and ran home naked, all the while yelling "Eureka!" (Translation: "I've found it!"). He took a lump of pure gold, weighed it carefully, and then dumped it in a tub of water and measured how much volume of water was displaced, thereby finding out the density of pure gold (mass / volume). Then he took the crown, weighed it carefully, and then dumped it in water and measured the volume of water displaced and determined its density (again, mass / volume). From the difference in densities, he determined that the goldsmith had cheated the king, not only that, he could also tell how much gold the goldsmith had stolen and replaced with cheaper metal.<br />
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Similarly, measuring the density of black powder gives a good idea of the kinds of raw ingredients used, the mixture and the presence of any impurities. As far as black powder was concerned, it is a substance with grains, therefore there were three ways to measure its density:<br />
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<ol>
<li><b>Gravimetric density</b> - This is the density of the powder, including the air between the powder grains.</li>
<li><b>Relative density</b> - This is the density of the powder measured excluding the air between the grains, but including the air contained in the pores of the grains,</li>
<li><b>Absolute or real density</b> - This is the density of the powder, excluding all atmospheric air.</li>
</ol>
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Gravimetric density is the easiest to determine. It can be measured by weighing a quantity of powder that fills a certain space. However, due to variations in grain size and quality, this method doesn't give uniform results. Variations can also occur due to the shape of the measuring vessel, the height at which the powder is dropped into the vessel, size and shape of the grains and size of the filling hole. Therefore, comparisons of different samples are only meaningful if the same kinds of powder are measured using the same apparatus.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3Miq4VDflTirY79LxL7DxHa1XU6apx2PDQBKXd0M6daJ2h5jUMzczDmtu1GSFt51q4nac5i7K_fkExKrPw-SYjOTTBSkSrcHsIktrEAoSg0KiP-fY1iz3QLdnbMO88HJ-keCNI_P1-2iQ/s1600/gravimetric-density.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3Miq4VDflTirY79LxL7DxHa1XU6apx2PDQBKXd0M6daJ2h5jUMzczDmtu1GSFt51q4nac5i7K_fkExKrPw-SYjOTTBSkSrcHsIktrEAoSg0KiP-fY1iz3QLdnbMO88HJ-keCNI_P1-2iQ/s1600/gravimetric-density.JPG" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Apparatus to measure the gravimetric density of black powder. Public domain image.</span></div>
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The above apparatus was used in many European countries in the 19th century. It consists of a measuring vessel (A), made of brass or copper, which is precisely calibrated to hold exactly 1 liter (1000 cubic centimeters or 61.02 cubic inches) of material. Above it is placed a funnel B, with a conical bottom and a hole of exactly 14 millimeters (55/64 inches). The height between the bottom of the funnel and the upper edge of the measuring vessel was exactly 40 millimeters (1-37/64 inches). A cut off plate, C, was placed at the bottom of the funnel, to regulate the flow of gunpowder. To determine the gravimetric density of powder, the vessel A was first emptied and weighed very accurately. Then it was placed under the funnel and powder allowed to fall into the vessel until the grains began to run off the edge of it. Then the funnel was closed and the powder was smoothed off with a brass plate and a few light blows were struck to make the powder grains settle a little, with the excess being removed with a soft brush. The vessel was then precisely weighed again. The difference between the two weighings is the weight of the powder contained in 1 liter, from which we can find the density. Since variations in grain size could affect the results somewhat, the experiment was repeated three times and the average was taken. Depending on the type of powder, different countries had different standards for densities of powder. E.g. Germany's standards were: rifle powder must be between 0.905 and 0.925, cannon powder between 0.915 and 0.935, large grained powder between 0.960 and 0.980, Austria's standard for large-grained powder had to be between .907 and .951, Switzerland had rifle powder between 0.955 and 0.975, while cannon powder was to be between 0.960 and 0.970, French standards had musket powder between 0.830 and 0.870, sporting powders at least 0.860 etc.<br />
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To measure the relative or absolute density, people generally used quite a few methods. One of them borrows the ideas of our old friend, Archimedes. They would first take a liquid that could not dissolve any of the ingredients of gunpowder. Pure distilled alcohol was often used for this purpose. They would put a certain amount of this alcohol in a glass measuring tube, calibrated in tenths of a cubic centimeter and allow it to settle for a few minutes. Then, they would accurately weigh a certain quantity of black powder and then drop it into the tube. Due to the added powder grains, the level of alcohol in the tube would rise. They would read the markings on the tube to measure the increase in volume and since they already knew the weight of the powder added, they could now determine density = mass / volume.<br />
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This method was later improved by scientists, such as Heeren, Timmerhans, Otto and others. One of the issues was that when the powder was immediately added to the tube, the level would rise at first and then drop, as air bubbles escaped from the tube due to the alcohol seeping into the air gaps between the powder grains. Therefore, the improvements were generally procedures like waiting for a certain period of time for the alcohol level to settle, heating the alcohol and using an air pump to pull out all the trapped air in the grains etc., to get a more accurate reading.<br />
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There were also dedicated instruments called densimeters, that were developed to measure the density of black powders. Examples of these include Marchand's densimeter, Hoffmann's densimeter, Bode's densimeter, Ricq's densimeter, Bianchi's densimeter etc.<br />
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Hoffmann's densimeter. Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Bode's densimeter. Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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These densimeters generally used vacuum pumps and mercury to accurately measure mass and volume of the powder grains and determine the absolute or real density of the powder.<br />
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As far as black powder was concerned, both gravimetric and real densities were measured to judge its quality. Since real density measures the density of the powder without the air in between the grains, it is possible for two powders made with the same proportion of ingredients but different grain sizes, to have the same real density and different gravimetric densities. Gravimetric density, on the other hand, depends on the size and shape of the grains, on the glazing process and percentage of dust in the powder. The gravimetric density has an influence on the rapidity of combustion, whereas the real density influences both the rate of combustion of a single grain of powder and the durability (keeping quality) of the powder during transport and use. Therefore, both densities were measured to properly judge the qualities of a powder.<br />
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The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-29628915710361365642016-10-29T09:54:00.000-07:002016-10-29T09:54:23.476-07:00Examining Black Powder Quality - IIn the last several weeks, we have taken a detailed look at the manufacturing process for black powder. In today's post, we will look at some of the procedures that were used in the 19th century to ensure black powder quality. The procedures used examined both the physical and chemical properties of black powder. In today's post. we will look at some of the physical properties that they would look for.<div>
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In places where good quality black powder was made, the powder was examined immediately after the <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xvii-blending.html">blending process</a> was completed. They would also periodically take small samples from powder stored in warehouses for analysis, to make sure that it was still usable.</div>
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The first thing they would do is give it a visual inspection. The color of good quality black powder should be a uniform dark gray (or slate) color. If the color has a blue tint or is very black, then this indicates that the powder has too much charcoal or contains too much moisture. Powders made of red charcoal (such as <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/brown-or-cocoa-powder.html">cocoa powder</a>) should be of brownish-black color.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7tUlLkUye_XO-94YGHtOWJmv_NyQtnd7U0IoWhj1m3KuWHZ4v8gHIIXWBqBfvbhnJapNTGEZlnxBAt1Ll5Xm3gHStHbJBx7kvVANTXo52hY9cQYCf4d5Of1SLfU1UJ5gxoAylFBLyQVSl/s1600/bp.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="289" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7tUlLkUye_XO-94YGHtOWJmv_NyQtnd7U0IoWhj1m3KuWHZ4v8gHIIXWBqBfvbhnJapNTGEZlnxBAt1Ll5Xm3gHStHbJBx7kvVANTXo52hY9cQYCf4d5Of1SLfU1UJ5gxoAylFBLyQVSl/s320/bp.JPG" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">A sample of good quality black powder. Click on the image to enlarge.</span></div>
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After this, they would examine a small sample with their eyes or through a magnifying glass. Properly mixed powder should not show any difference in color even when crushed, nor should it be possible to feel sharp particles. A variety of colors indicates that the powder was not mixed evenly and the presence of sharp particles indicates that the ingredients were not <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/07/black-powder-vii-corned-powder.html">pulverized</a> properly. Bright or bluish-white spots in the powder indicate that the saltpeter has effloresced during the <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xv-drying-powder.html">drying process</a>, which will also affect the properties of the mixture.</div>
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The powder would then be allowed to run over a sheet of paper and the paper would be examined. Properly made powder should not transfer its color to the paper. If this happens, this indicates that the powder has too much moisture or dust (meal powder).</div>
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For <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxiii-prismatic-powder.html">prismatic powders</a>, they would check to see if the prisms have smooth surfaces and the edges are sharp and complete. They would also check to make sure that the prisms don't easily crumble or give off too much color when rubbed against a sheet of paper.</div>
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The next thing to check was the solidity of the grains of powder. Good quality powder grains should not be easily crushed by finger pressure. It should not fall into dust at once, but should break up into angular splinters. In Germany, they would put 1.1 lbs of powder in a leather bag, which was then put in a <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xiv-dusting-and-glazing.html">glazing drum</a> and rotated for 15 minutes at 15 revolutions per minute. After this, they would take it out and weigh it again and the loss of weight should not be more than 1.55%. In France, they would take an average of various powder samples and <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xiv-dusting-and-glazing.html">dust it</a> initially and then take 8 kg. (17.6 lbs.) of powder and put it in a barrel designed to hold 12 kg. (26.4 lbs.) of powder, which means about 1/3 of the barrel is empty space. This barrel would then be enclosed inside a second barrel and then rolled down an incline of 15 degrees for a length of 5 meters (16.4 feet). The incline was made of planks and at the bottom was a bale of hay to stop the barrel. At the side was another incline made the same way, but falling in the opposite direction. The barrel was allowed to roll down one incline, then sent back down the other incline and the process was repeated 100 times, so that the barrel would have traveled a total of 1000 meters (3300 feet). The powder was then <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xiv-dusting-and-glazing.html">dusted</a> again and the remaining grains were weighed. If the powder did not lose more than 0.20% weight after this test, then it was deemed to be of good quality.</div>
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The next process was to examine the size of the grains. They would do this by taking a sample of powder (typically about 2 kg. (4.4 lbs.)) and placing it in a frame with a number of sieves in it and a tray at the bottom. The sieves would have meshes with different sized holes, with the sieve with the largest holes at the top and the sieve with the smallest holes at the bottom. They would place the powder sample on the top sieve and then shake the entire frame for a prescribed amount of time (which depended upon country) and then see how much of the powder sample was held in each sieve. There were quality standards defined for how much each sieve could hold, depending on the powder type. For instance, for good quality rifle powder, no powder must be retained in the first sieve, less than 5% in the second sieve, up to 65% in the third sieve, up to 50% in the fourth sieve and 8% at most in the fifth sieve. Similarly, for good quality cannon powder, no powder must be retained in the first sieve, not more than 5% in the second sieve and no more than 10% in the fifth sieve and all the remaining should be in the third or fourth sieve. </div>
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In France, they would additionally also count the number of grains in a gram of powder sample to check if they were within certain limits depending on the type of powder.</div>
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In our next article, we will study some more physical properties they would study to ensure black powder quality.</div>
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The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-83619559433378021572016-10-22T10:05:00.002-07:002016-10-22T10:05:40.572-07:00Black Powder Substitutes - IIIn our <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/10/black-powder-substitutes-i.html">last post</a>, we looked at a common black powder substitute: <b><a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/10/black-powder-substitutes-i.html">pyrodex</a></b>. In today's post, we will look at other black powder substitutes.<br />
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Pyrodex was one of the first successful black powder substitutes and is therefore well known, since it was first introduced in 1975. However, it still retains the sulfur smell of original black powder and produces a lot of smoke and residue and is corrosive as well, just like original black powder. Towards the beginning of the 21st century, newer powders such as <b>Hodgdon Triple Seven</b> (otherwise called <b>Triple Se7en</b>), <b>American Pioneer Powder</b> (originally sold as <b>CleanShot</b>), <b>Shockey's Gold</b>, <b>Black Mag</b>, <b>Blackhorn 209</b> Goex <b>Clear Shot</b> and Goex <b>Pinnacle</b> (since discontinued) became available on the market. These powders attempted to correct the deficiencies of pyrodex and original black powder.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiffIROqvAc3asD-l2z67O8PT1ivkHKXViTGrchCqLLYrca-ZcFkGuX_zzW74mF-7mFfWvJ2sYefJeJBjWV-pPokw94vkhF66yS9QZwqt8nrRe_hKq91wHFuB3oHKMs7eXWcUbJvheuG3CZ/s1600/t7bottle.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiffIROqvAc3asD-l2z67O8PT1ivkHKXViTGrchCqLLYrca-ZcFkGuX_zzW74mF-7mFfWvJ2sYefJeJBjWV-pPokw94vkhF66yS9QZwqt8nrRe_hKq91wHFuB3oHKMs7eXWcUbJvheuG3CZ/s1600/t7bottle.jpg" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKn_7JDqUmc7IzVAtNssn13sikl3y903T9PgDSyzPzX-4b3a1j0J2xBNdvYO2GyiGls-VsJ6j-9OOIjkPFtmLtYLi-bsAjcHcGUMFeCkzgjvjXlH6J7M2d7G7UlyKqpPwMRfqdds_OFBHP/s1600/triple7-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="276" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKn_7JDqUmc7IzVAtNssn13sikl3y903T9PgDSyzPzX-4b3a1j0J2xBNdvYO2GyiGls-VsJ6j-9OOIjkPFtmLtYLi-bsAjcHcGUMFeCkzgjvjXlH6J7M2d7G7UlyKqpPwMRfqdds_OFBHP/s320/triple7-2.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Hodgdon Triple Seven Powder and Pellets. Click on the image to enlarge,</span></div>
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Triple Seven powder is made by Hodgdon, the same people that make Pyrodex as well. It was introduced early in the 21st century and is available in both loose powder and pellet form (Hodgdon owns a patent on the cylindrical pellet). This powder is made using carbon from sources other than wood charcoal and contains no sulfur. Therefore, it lacks the typical sulfur smell of original black powder and pyrodex. Like pyrodex, it is classified as a "<a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2010/06/propellants-smokeless-powders.html">smokeless powder</a>" and is therefore not subject to the strict rules and regulations that govern the storage and sale of black powder, which means many retailers are likely to sell it in their stores. It is less dense than pyrodex. Unlike pyrodex, the loose powder form is <b>not</b> "<a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/10/black-powder-substitutes-i.html">volume equivalent</a>" to black powder, as it is hotter burning and about 15% more powerful. Therefore about 85 grains BY VOLUME of triple seven is equivalent to 100 grains of black powder or pyrodex BY VOLUME. The pellets, on the other hand, are formulated to be equivalent to pyrodex and black powder by volume. In addition to the lack of sulfur smell, triple seven powder is cleaner burning, produces lesser smoke, is less corrosive and easier to clean as well, as it dissolves in plain water. The one thing that some shooters complain about is that triple seven powder tends to form a "crud ring", which is a build-up of a hard crust at the location of where the bullet sits on the powder. However, a quick swab of the bore between shots can easily clean this problem. One more disadvantage is that Triple Seven powder is hygroscopic (i.e. it attracts water from the atmosphere), so it can degrade performance if not properly stored. Triple seven powder is a somewhat expensive compared to pyrodex, but is still a popular alternative.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheDjpMCLhhVRQYXrq-xOKtjVfMoUtUafPIcMRKzFMYkb1DdEvP9qap21k_IhjiRiNlbxSIvyC56ILyT0eEDtwOZKvd-eam5YLt2uSsUCV81o2imlq28X6s0ktARkjGJ5goA7iPPKt47dXc/s1600/APP3F.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheDjpMCLhhVRQYXrq-xOKtjVfMoUtUafPIcMRKzFMYkb1DdEvP9qap21k_IhjiRiNlbxSIvyC56ILyT0eEDtwOZKvd-eam5YLt2uSsUCV81o2imlq28X6s0ktARkjGJ5goA7iPPKt47dXc/s320/APP3F.jpg" width="222" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">American Pioneer Powder</span></div>
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American Pioneer Powder started off life as "Clean Shot". Like Triple Seven, it uses a different formulation (using ascorbic acid) that reduces the sulfur smell and is easier to clean than black powder. Clean Shot Technologies was sued by Hodgdon for infringing on the cylindrical pellet patent and went bankrupt and a new company, American Pioneer Powder, was formed, which now sells powder under the brands of <b>American Pioneer</b> and <b>Shockey's Gold</b> powder. In addition to loose powder, they also sell it in a compressed stick form, as a work-around the Hodgdon patent. Their powders are reported to clean up easier than pyrodex and triple seven, but some shooters report erratic performance.<br />
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Black Mag powders are also based on ascorbic acid and uses potassium perchlorate as the oxidizer. They sold powders under the brands <b>Black Mag2</b> (equivalent to <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/07/black-powder-iv-powder-grain-sizes.html">FFg grain size</a>), <b>Black Mag3</b> (equivalent to <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/07/black-powder-iv-powder-grain-sizes.html">FFFg grain size</a>) and <b>Black Mag XP</b>, as well as manufacturing powders for other companies, such as <b>Alliant Black Dot</b>. While they did have quality control issues, if properly made, it produces fairly consistent performance. It is easier to ignite, leaves less residue and far less corrosive than triple seven or pyrodex. Like triple seven, it is also a hotter burning propellant than pyrodex. Unfortunately, there was an accident at the plant that manufactures these powders in 2010 which led to safety violations charges for the owner and in 2013, he was sentenced and the plant was permanently closed. As part of the sentencing, the owner agreed never to resume manufacturing propellants or even conduct any business in the vicinity of a propellant manufacturing facility.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTFz983J6OygIlpzlaheA8E1qw5V7eLaXIJAxkpnWE4fac0QTj6WWFP6NJdt__Pm0jRhepxLnddUugzlqpzDmbCFBlBx0ElC7fWRIS7crkRLD-YpeFSGU8FsOQW57pbx5QrS3hQEF_7bxT/s1600/blackhorn.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTFz983J6OygIlpzlaheA8E1qw5V7eLaXIJAxkpnWE4fac0QTj6WWFP6NJdt__Pm0jRhepxLnddUugzlqpzDmbCFBlBx0ElC7fWRIS7crkRLD-YpeFSGU8FsOQW57pbx5QrS3hQEF_7bxT/s320/blackhorn.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b>Blackhorn 209</b> was introduced by Western Powders in 2008. It is much more non-corrosive and cleaner burning than other powders. The 209 indicates that it requires a 209 shotshell primer for proper ignition. Like some of the other powders above, it is also a "volume equivalent powder" (i.e.) it can be measured using the same powder measure as black powder for identical performance. It has excellent performance and unlike most of the other powders above, it is also non-hygroscopic (which means it doesn't attract water from the atmosphere) and therefore has a longer shelf life. It also doesn't form crud or corrosion like the other substitutes and requires far less cleanup as it is low-fouling in nature.<br />
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<br />The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-41441208345602831612016-10-20T23:53:00.001-07:002016-10-21T20:59:03.775-07:00Black Powder Substitutes - IA <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxv-pellet-powder.html">few posts earlier</a>, we saw a mention of something called "<b>black powder substitute</b>". We will study more about this topic in today's post.<br />
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As we saw in several posts on the topic of black powders, it is a mixture that was used as a propellant for hundreds of years. Some of the problems with using black powder include<br />
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<ol>
<li>Ignites very easily and burns rapidly, which may cause accidents if it happens unexpectedly.</li>
<li>Produces a sulfur smell and a lot of residue after burning.</li>
<li>It is hygroscopic and can absorb water from the atmosphere, which causes the powder to degrade.</li>
<li>Needs careful handling and storage to prevent accidents.</li>
<li>Is generally corrosive in nature, which means that firearms need to be cleaned thoroughly after use.</li>
</ol>
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In addition to all the above reasons, black powder also burns less efficiently than modern <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2010/06/propellants-smokeless-powders.html">smokeless powders</a>, which is why most modern firearms use smokeless powders. However, there are still quite a few black powder enthusiasts, who like to use firearms (or replica firearms) that their ancestors used in the past. Due to the unsafe nature of black powder, many areas have special regulations concerning the storage, sale and use of black powder, which makes it hard for people to buy it. This is where black powder substitutes come in.</div>
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The most common black powder substitute in use today is called "<b>Pyrodex</b>", which was invented by the Hodgdon Powder Company in 1975.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5EmSG_UsUnbTZ6gSjPdihfQ5BDlooVyQJG6HjYvfKm2rQNVEn9v5_m8_BF1SAGp5YLGqAoZxmi8fTqAfNYV1w7sTU5fwwb_UDbmzToDF58AIEu5Zxhh6fi7Gg0QXq1HjkARaoRgx_LeLJ/s1600/Pyrodex_powder_ffg.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="287" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5EmSG_UsUnbTZ6gSjPdihfQ5BDlooVyQJG6HjYvfKm2rQNVEn9v5_m8_BF1SAGp5YLGqAoZxmi8fTqAfNYV1w7sTU5fwwb_UDbmzToDF58AIEu5Zxhh6fi7Gg0QXq1HjkARaoRgx_LeLJ/s400/Pyrodex_powder_ffg.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Pyrodex Powder. Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span> </div>
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Ordinary black powder can easily be ignited by impact forces, sparks or static electricity, which makes manufacturing and storing it more dangerous. In fact, the last factory manufacturing ordinary black powder in the US was closed in 1970 after an accidental explosion and new regulations came out that made many retailers reluctant to sell black powder any more. In 1975, the Hodgdon Powder Company invented the first black powder substitute:<b> pyrodex</b>.</div>
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Ordinary black powder consists of just saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sulfur and charcoal (carbon). Pyrodex also has these three ingredients, but also contains graphite, potassium perchlorate and some other proprietary ingredients. These additional ingredients make the properties of pyrodex behave more like a smokeless powder and therefore, it is not subject to the same strict regulations of black powder. This means that pyrodex doesn't ignite as easily as black powder and can be stored and transported just like a smokeless powder, which is why many retailers sell it.</div>
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Pyrodex is actually about 27.5% less dense than ordinary black powder and is more efficient than it. So how does the substitution work then? Well, when measuring ordinary black powder for muzzleloading weapons, people have always specified powder loads by weight (e.g. grains in the US, grams in most other countries), but they have usually measured it out by volume. What this means is that if a muzzleloading rifle takes (say) 100 grains of black powder as a load, the user doesn't usually actually weigh out 100 grains of powder to load into the rifle. Instead the user has a powder measuring tube, which he (or she) fills with black powder and pours that into the rifle. If the user measures the weight of the black powder from the measuring tube, it will indeed weigh 100 grains (or something close to it). When using pyrodex, the user can use the same measuring tube to measure out a quantity of pyrodex. If the user weighs the contents of the measuring tube, it will weigh around 72.5 grains, since pyrodex is less dense than black powder. However, this 72.5 grains of pyrodex burns with about the same propulsive force as 100 grains of black powder, since pyrodex is a more efficient propellant. Therefore, if the user uses the same measuring tube to measure black powder or pyrodex, one can easily be substituted for the other, without affecting the pressures generated in the rifle. This makes pyrodex a "<b>volume equivalent powder</b>". </div>
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It must be remembered that muzzleloading weapons are commonly loaded by volume using measuring tubes, this works out great when using a volume equivalent powder like pyrodex. However, black powder cartridges are loaded by weight. Therefore, if using pyrodex instead of black powder to load a cartridge, the user must actually load a lesser weight of pyrodex to retain the same amount of propulsive force. </div>
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Pyrodex powder has a similar burning sulfur smell as black powder and is also very corrosive in nature and produces about the same amount of fouling as ordinary black powder. Therefore, users need to perform the same cleaning procedures as when using normal black powder. However, since pyrodex is less susceptible to ignition, it is subject to the same regulations as smokeless powder, instead of the the much stricter regulations of black powder. </div>
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Pyrodex is normally sold in a few grain sizes: Pyrodex RS (Rifle/Shotgun), which is volume equivalent to <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/07/black-powder-iv-powder-grain-sizes.html">FFg grain size</a> black powder, and Pyrodex P (Pistol) powder, which is volume equivalent to <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/07/black-powder-iv-powder-grain-sizes.html">FFFg grain size</a> black powder. There is also Pyrodex "Select" powder, which is the largest grain size of all and is marketed as an "extremely consistent" grade of pyrodex, meant for muzzleloading rifles. 63.9 grains of Pyrodex "Select" powder have the same volume as 100 grains of black powder.</div>
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These days, pyrodex is also sold in pellet form, such as the image below:</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjroCxigAy-OiMGIXV41lrZtA_pUeY0HilHmIrOzccKnqtF7lIJ6Xnp_SFiwlcLh0VxrcJEev-UVZ9iBlizLrkWNDlMQMcMZiecJVBW9zfz8keJPec0PjTfK7lIgxWNFegR7JKsCniXvqiZ/s1600/pyrodex2.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjroCxigAy-OiMGIXV41lrZtA_pUeY0HilHmIrOzccKnqtF7lIJ6Xnp_SFiwlcLh0VxrcJEev-UVZ9iBlizLrkWNDlMQMcMZiecJVBW9zfz8keJPec0PjTfK7lIgxWNFegR7JKsCniXvqiZ/s400/pyrodex2.jpeg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Pyrodex pellets. Click on the image to enlarge. </span></div>
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With this type of pyrodex, the user doesn't have to use a measuring tube to measure out the powder, since the pellets are all of a certain specific size. Instead the user simply takes a pellet or two and loads it directly into the firearm. </div>
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We will study more about black powder substitutes in the next few posts.<br />
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The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-56816095524769080762016-10-02T18:12:00.002-07:002016-10-02T18:31:16.593-07:00Black Powder Factories - IIIn our <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-factories-i.html">last post</a>, we studied how early gunpowder factories were often located in the middle of towns in the early days of firearms. Of course, placing a factory within your town walls made sense if you wanted to defend your town walls against attack, but there was the problem of accidents in the factory setting the town on fire. Towards the beginning of the nineteenth century, people began to think more about factory safety and several laws were passed specifying how far away a gunpowder factory could be away from people's houses and how much powder could be worked inside one building and so on. In today's post, we will study how one such factory was set up in the 1860s. Today's object of study will be the <b>Confederate Powder Works</b>.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEy9SVwxDHBmfDkPwXDetmGvJeMCZzkTciUe0vDSI2V9u07JXyT6V9qawTNOuCP4S32GREReM_-ZJU7hU7iZpYjsuabyb5Gx5FAaNJ2CEuJKYjGOMqupP85aBS1Ql0mlsBpYTJ4MaeBAB5/s1600/cpw.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="516" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEy9SVwxDHBmfDkPwXDetmGvJeMCZzkTciUe0vDSI2V9u07JXyT6V9qawTNOuCP4S32GREReM_-ZJU7hU7iZpYjsuabyb5Gx5FAaNJ2CEuJKYjGOMqupP85aBS1Ql0mlsBpYTJ4MaeBAB5/s640/cpw.JPG" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">A view of the remaining chimney of the Confederate Powder Works in Augusta, Georgia<br />Click on the image to enlarge.</span></div>
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Not much remains of the Confederate Powder Works these days, except for one 150-foot tall chimney, but in its day, it was a massive factory complex laid out over two miles in length and was the second largest gunpowder factory in the world then.<br />
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During the days leading up to the Civil War, the Confederate states did not have any significant gunpowder manufacturing facilties, except for a small mill in Tennessee. On July 10th, 1861, Confederate President Jefferson Davis authorized Major George Washington Rains to build whatever was necessary to keep the Confederate armies supplied with gunpowder.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTkz3GJHRU-nbnAriF2JUeFEvJdBFS4NW0Q95yWqOcsZAC-FMIVR9KrHtLfRzYnAHGFtL7Kql3MLR0TfZ-zXImXftkzmGw1gJ6vwXq_ZB7C5bdeh7du-H_Lpx0QnhqBD-IacfeKh71RDnp/s1600/gw-rains.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTkz3GJHRU-nbnAriF2JUeFEvJdBFS4NW0Q95yWqOcsZAC-FMIVR9KrHtLfRzYnAHGFtL7Kql3MLR0TfZ-zXImXftkzmGw1gJ6vwXq_ZB7C5bdeh7du-H_Lpx0QnhqBD-IacfeKh71RDnp/s320/gw-rains.JPG" width="214" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Colonel George.W. Rains. Click on the image to enlarge.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">This photograph was taken during the Civil War and is currently in the Augusta Museum of History.</span></div>
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Major Rains spent the next few days living in a railroad car, examining various places for a suitable location for a factory. On July 20th, he selected an area in Augusta, Georgia to be the site of the future factory. The reasons for picking this area for the new factory were several:<br />
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<ol>
<li>It was centrally located and near the junction of some major railroads.</li>
<li>The area was near enough to a big town (Augusta) to provide sufficient workers and materials.</li>
<li>It was far enough from the front-lines that Union forces could not easily attack it.</li>
<li>The Augusta canal and the Savannah river could also be used to transport over water.</li>
<li>The Augusta canal was also a source of <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-factories-i.html">water power</a>, which is useful to drive factory machinery.</li>
<li>The area has temperate weather, which means the water supply does not generally freeze during the winter months, thereby ensuring unlimited water power during the whole year.</li>
<li>Since he also intended to produce pure potassium nitrate (saltpeter) in the factory, he also needed abundance of water to wash and refine the minerals.</li>
<li>The canal could also be used to transport supplies and materials from one factory building to the next. </li>
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However, Rains had a few big problems: First, he had no idea about how to build a gunpowder factory, having never been inside one before! Luckily, he came across a book authored by a Major Fraser Baddeley of the Royal Artillery in England, called "<i>Manufacture of Gunpowder as carried out at the Government Factory, Waltham Abbey"</i>, that described the entire process and machinery used by the Royal Gunpowder Factory at the Waltham Abbey works in Essex, England. While the book had the descriptions, there were no drawings or plans of the buildings or machines, therefore he had to research on his own to figure these out. Luckily for him, he happened to find an Englishman named Frederick Wright, who had moved to the Southern states and had worked at Waltham Abbey previously, so he asked him for assistance and produced some detailed word descriptions and preliminary sketches. </div>
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The next problem was to find an experienced architect to build the plant while he was occupied with other duties for supplying the existing armies in the field. He hired a couple of young civil engineers/architects, Miller Grant and Charles Shaler Smith to do the job. Construction of the first building started in September 1861. By the time the factory was in full operation, 26 separate buildings were constructed over 140 acres of land that extended almost two miles along the banks of the canal.</div>
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The buildings were constructed along the canal, coinciding with the process of making black powder (i.e.) the warehouses to store the raw materials were located first in line, the refinery to refine saltpeter was next and so on, until the final building at the end of the complex, which was used to store the finished gunpowder. The canal was used to transport materials from one building to the next, much like a modern assembly line. The most important buildings were built first: the <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/06/the-history-of-saltpeter-xviii.html">Refinery</a>, the <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/07/black-powder-ix.html">Incorporating mills</a>, the <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/07/black-powder-x-mixing-ingredients.html">Mixing house</a>, the <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xii-granulating.html">Granulating house</a>, the <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xi-pressing.html">Pressing house</a> and the <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xv-drying-powder.html">Drying house</a> and the Boiler house. Other buildings include a blacksmith's house, the stables, a carriage house, a laboratory etc. We will discuss the construction and use of these buildings in the next post or two. The refinery building in particular, was very beautiful to look at, being constructed in a Gothic revival style, influenced by the Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC and the British Houses of Parliament. The chimney in front of the refinery was shaped like an obelisk and is the only structure that survives today, located at 1717 Goodrich Street in Augusta. The buildings were separated from each other and designed to survive explosions, in accordance with the safety procedures used in other gunpowder factories in the 19th century.</div>
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The first gunpowder in the factory was made on April 13th, 1862; just nine months after Rains had been authorized to build the factory and construction of new buildings continued as the factory expanded. The factory remained in operation until the surrender of the South during the end of April 1865, which means it remained in operation for a little over three years. During this time, it managed to produce approximately 2,750,000 pounds of gunpowder at an average rate of around 7,000 pounds a day. In addition to this, the factory also produced other war material, such as time fuses, artillery pieces, wagons etc. Due to his efforts in building the factory, Major Rains was promoted to a full colonel by the end of the war.</div>
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After the Civil war ended, the factory fell into ruin. In 1872, a project to widen the Augusta canal resulted in most of the buildings to be destroyed, leaving only the tall chimney that can still be seen today. The chimney was spared, at the request of Colonel Rains, as a memorial to those who died in the Southern armies during the Civil war.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdNI9DXH_6Z8rGDTMV_0LL42SZBHEyErSzBMpKNTLYMQyW68UKbJRxoOVs_wxm5WyJ4T2SZbCtFKcxU9Fk7VOtvfjkh1Kght9GwTOHO7ARhCTrrppGUFgMZWrLFmpppBkarV3Zb7iGvikf/s1600/augusta-factory.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="225" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdNI9DXH_6Z8rGDTMV_0LL42SZBHEyErSzBMpKNTLYMQyW68UKbJRxoOVs_wxm5WyJ4T2SZbCtFKcxU9Fk7VOtvfjkh1Kght9GwTOHO7ARhCTrrppGUFgMZWrLFmpppBkarV3Zb7iGvikf/s400/augusta-factory.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">A view of the chimney as it exists today, courtesy the Augusta Historical Society.<br />Click on the image to enlarge. </span></div>
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In 1880, a new mill was constructed in the old powder works area, called the Sibley cotton mill owned by the Sibley family. Bricks from the demolished buildings were used to construct the new mill and it was built with the appearance of a medieval castle or fortress, similar to the powder works buildings that it replaced. The cotton mill was very successful and remained in operation until around 2006, making denim cloth for major clothing manufacturers. While the mill production has ended, the water-driven turbines still remain in operation and generate electricity that is sold to Georgia Power even today. </div>
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The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-19089610944236874552016-09-26T21:47:00.001-07:002016-09-26T22:03:55.112-07:00Black Powder Factories - IIn the previous several posts, we have studied several aspects of <b>black powder</b> manufacturing. But what about the factories themselves? In the next few posts, we will study the layouts and processes used in the factories.<br />
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Curious though it may seem, even though people knew that black powder was potentially explosive from the earliest days, it was made for a considerable time within towns, probably because towns were often under siege and needed the factory to be inside to supply the gunpowder for the guns mounted on the town walls. Of course, there were accidents: For instance, in 1360, it is recorded that the town-hall of Lubeck, one of the largest and richest cities in the Hanseatic league (now in Northern Germany) was burned to the ground, thanks to the carelessness of the gunpowder makers of that town. In 1528, the town leaders of Breslau finally issued a law prohibiting manufacturing gunpowder within the town. In 1490, Venice passed a law to move gunpowder manufacture from the city center to the Venetian Arsenal (which was not in the city center, but pretty darn close to it), but many of its other factories (such as in Padua, Treviso, Verona, Brescia etc.) were located practically at the center of town. It took a major fire at the Venetian Arsenal in 1569, which forced the Council of Ten to pass a law to make both gunpowder manufacturing and storage outside the urban area of Venice. The new site was the small island of Sant'Angelo di Concordia (later renamed to Sant'Angelo della Polvere because of the gunpowder factory), which was located to the south-west of the main islands of Venice.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmkDPH4HWuGqgc0mfCcNsr23Mbgo75iFgB7ylbroIvEKdcsjYKxcXRplGf9mqTkQAxYzZ_1m3mGYIQQLrAVeovk9hGQCsAxOnJw3kWimnN7YS2Mjx4VvSaCtTIgXf2U-G5ZFUW4rylSBIo/s1600/sant-angelo-della-polvere.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmkDPH4HWuGqgc0mfCcNsr23Mbgo75iFgB7ylbroIvEKdcsjYKxcXRplGf9mqTkQAxYzZ_1m3mGYIQQLrAVeovk9hGQCsAxOnJw3kWimnN7YS2Mjx4VvSaCtTIgXf2U-G5ZFUW4rylSBIo/s400/sant-angelo-della-polvere.JPG" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">The Island of Sant'Angelo della Polvere in the Venetian lagoon.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Click on the image to enlarge. Image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license by Maurice Ohana</span></div>
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However, Venice was more of an anomaly because it had a strong navy and didn't need city walls because of protection by the sea. Most towns still continued to locate their gunpowder factories within their walls. And if the factories were located outside the heavily populated areas, the buildings were often located haphazardly.<br />
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It was only in the nineteenth century that regulations governing factory safety went into place in many countries. Laws were passed specifying the distance of the factory buildings from citizens' houses and from each other and also how much quantity of ingredients or powder may be worked on at a time in each building, materials to be used to construct the buildings and so on.<br />
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Since powder factories need a considerable amount of machinery to pulverize, mix and combine powder ingredients, they were generally erected in places where a large amount of water power is available, such as a fast flowing river or canal. In places where water power could not be reasonably applied, animal power (e.g. oxen, horses etc.) was used instead. For instance, we know that horses were used in Venice because various records of purchases of horses and hay for the Venetian powder factories from 1560-1570 have survived. Later on, when the steam engine was perfected in the 1760s by James Watt (although it was invented and worked on by other people many years before, James Watt made it much more practical for factory use), some gunpowder factories began to use steam power to drive their machinery, which made it possible to locate the factory away from flowing water.<br />
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Where water power was used, the machinery required for a particular operation were arranged in pairs, so that there would be one machine on the left side and the other on the right side. The water wheel would be located at the center, or individual wheels would be placed on each side and the water routed via canals to either side. Power would be transmitted from the wheel to the machine using gears and gear shafts. In some cases, a large water wheel would transmit its power to various buildings using wire ropes and chain arrangements.<br />
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Animal power was used where water power was not readily available, but the machines in these factories were smaller. Running costs were higher because not only did the machines require repairs and greasing, but the factory also had to pay for the animals, their food, their stables and the people who were caring for those animals.<br />
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When steam power was used, there were two methods to transmit the power. The first method consisted of installing a large steam engine located centrally, which produced all the power required and this was transmitted to the various buildings using wire ropes. In this case, the steam engine was located in a central building and the other buildings were arranged in a circle around it, as was done in France in the factory at Sevran-Livry in Paris. The other option was that steam was produced in a large boiler plant and the steam was transported via an arrangement of pipes into the various buildings, where it was fed into smaller steam engines. With this method, the fire that produced the steam was kept away from the buildings containing the steam engines.<br />
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Water wheels are somewhat low in efficiency compared to other types of power, but they are very cheap to build and running costs are very low, with only application of grease and repairs to be done periodically, the water (which is the source of power) generally costing nothing. The technology of water wheels was well understood for many centuries, being used by the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Chinese, Indians, Arabs, Medieval Europe etc. The only thing to watch out for is floods and droughts, which could either wreck the factory or cause it to stop functioning. However, because of the low costs, water wheels were used anywhere that water power was readily available, and were competitive with steam engines well into the Industrial revolution.<br />
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Steam engines are higher in efficiency compared to water power and could be used as long as there was an adequate supply of fuel and water. Transmitting the power from a central engine to various buildings via wire ropes was fine over shorter distances, however the power losses can be considerable over larger distances. There is also much more lubrication needed for the ropes and pulleys and in case a rope breaks, a whole section of a factory could stop functioning. Therefore, many factories got around this by using a system of insulated pipes to transmit the steam to smaller steam engines located inside each building. Of course, the pipes had to be checked to ensure that they were not leaking steam and over-pressurization could cause pipes to break and stop work immediately, but using a system of smaller pipes and valves solved this issue somewhat because the valve of one pipe could be shut down for maintenance, while another parallel pipe or two could continue to carry steam to the machine while the first pipe was being examined and repaired and so on.<br />
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<br />The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-55357289396450010522016-09-22T19:31:00.002-07:002016-09-22T19:31:54.482-07:00Brown or Cocoa PowderIn the last several posts, we've studied about the development of <b>black powder</b>. In today's post, we will study another type of powder that was briefly used in the 19th century, which was called <b>brown powder</b> or <b>cocoa powder</b> on account of its color.<br />
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The purpose of cocoa powder was to make a powder that would burn at a slower rate than black powder, for use in large artillery guns and ship cannons. It was similar to black powder, but it could be used in larger guns than what <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxiii-prismatic-powder.html">black prismatic powder</a> was used for.<br />
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Around 1880, a company called Rottweil Pulverfabrik (translation: "Rottweil Powder Factory") from the town of Rottweil, Germany invented a new form of powder that used a different type of charcoal that was reddish-brown in color. In case readers are wondering, yes, Rottweil is also the town where the Rottweiler breed of dog was developed.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhp0XTKMSdtpPnnIm6ILqGEwQzbWopsBDc3iupltAK3KX5SVKfSnTGdcVvBkQnTD2hQ4kLo7FaZUNX-5URjrw_ZnIj49J-x66zO37nNLPz6Rj4Sllkc_m-dMtWxEhC4Y8e2qlvhS4s15dPI/s1600/RottweilPulverfabrik.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhp0XTKMSdtpPnnIm6ILqGEwQzbWopsBDc3iupltAK3KX5SVKfSnTGdcVvBkQnTD2hQ4kLo7FaZUNX-5URjrw_ZnIj49J-x66zO37nNLPz6Rj4Sllkc_m-dMtWxEhC4Y8e2qlvhS4s15dPI/s400/RottweilPulverfabrik.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">View over a part of the Rottweil Powder Factory in 2014.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Click on the image to enlarge. Image licensed under the Creative Commons Share-Alike Attribution Version 3.0 license by Andreas Koenig.</span></div>
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This powder had a different composition than black powder, consisting of 79% niter, 3% sulfur and 18% charcoal (whereas most black powders of that era were around 75% niter, 10% sulfur and 15% charcoal) and also contained about 1-2% moisture. The charcoal for this powder was also made in a different manner. We've studied how <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/06/historical-manufacture-of-charcoal.html">charcoal was manufactured for black powder</a> earlier. Brown or red charcoal is a charcoal that is made by under-burning organic material. The material used for producing this charcoal was rye straw. The straw was piled into large stacks and stored in open air for long periods of time, the stalks being large and thick, with the ears of rye removed from it. Then, the straw was placed in large wrought-iron chambers and superheated steam was pumped over the straw for several hours. The temperature of the superheated steam was carefully controlled. The superheated steam would dissolve most of the extractive matter from the straw, but would not char it fully and the result was a charcoal of a reddish or brown color (in French, this was called <i>charbon roux</i>). We studied about this <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/06/historical-manufacture-of-charcoal-ii.html">charcoal production process using steam</a> earlier.<br />
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These ingredients were then mixed together and compressed into hexagonal prisms with a central hole, using the production methods used for <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxiii-prismatic-powder.html">prismatic powder</a> that we studied earlier. This brown powder burned at a slower rate than black powder, and for equal muzzle velocities of the projectile, it produced less pressures inside the bore of the gun than black powder, and also produced less smoke than black powder as well. The more gradual development of pressure and reduction of the maximum pressure produced increased the life of the barrel and made it possible to develop lighter cannon.<br />
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The Germans adopted cocoa powder for their military in 1880. In 1884, the British Royal Navy decided to use cocoa powder for their ship guns and they bought their supplies from Rottweil Pulverfabrik. Soon after this, the French Navy also started using cocoa powder, but they developed their own version called Slow Burning Cocoa (SBC) powder around 1887. It was so successful for use in larger guns that it was sought by other militaries around the world as well. In England, they began to substitute charcoal made from rye straw with red charcoal made from wood and carbohydrates (such as sugar), to keep up with demand.<br />
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However, this powder did not burn all that cleanly (one test showed that about 43% of the powder was burned, the remainder formed large clouds of smoke) and it also left deposits in the bore. Therefore, when <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2010/06/propellants-smokeless-powders.html">smokeless powders</a>, such as the French Poudre B and the British Cordite powder were developed, brown powders became obsolete shortly after.<br />
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<br />The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-63735391095697139292016-09-17T19:07:00.001-07:002016-09-19T06:56:39.013-07:00Black Powder XXV - Pellet PowderIn our last few posts, we saw some developments in <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxii-compressed-powder.html">compressed black powder technology</a>, <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxiii-prismatic-powder.html">prismatic powders</a> and <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxiv-pebble-powders.html">pebble powders</a>. In today's post, we will study another type of compressed powder called <b>pellet powder</b>, which was invented in the 19th century.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_IxxTZCA9cx4fd62Nt-x4sYncuyRdDW_SH2f2BZY81gmHujXuf_iekY49s3Dx-1s7AE9NFdo9j5hmYalLohQVPYFQkhYs4ZklWNBBvMcxidMaXkgvkurQtxo3ATmD0yQMGQek6_N5ULKe/s1600/pellet.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_IxxTZCA9cx4fd62Nt-x4sYncuyRdDW_SH2f2BZY81gmHujXuf_iekY49s3Dx-1s7AE9NFdo9j5hmYalLohQVPYFQkhYs4ZklWNBBvMcxidMaXkgvkurQtxo3ATmD0yQMGQek6_N5ULKe/s1600/pellet.JPG" /></a></div>
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Pellet powder was a large grain powder designed to be used in larger guns. In our above example, each pellet is a formed cylinder of black powder about 1.25 inches in diameter with a hole in the center.<br />
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Sir John Anderson of Woolwich arsenal in England invented a machine in the 19th century for their manufacture, the details of which are below:<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhg4dargZ9IKabSJ2fQNljkM34u8_tRh_-aOZ3eNAutxZ2eo8fT_CsrOdv7L4FrtDPNo3hw2yP1Zwc4ee_-EFH0aA1YcYnnMfL1BKcJlBhYeA4EE0PX4e8J-0vIyZRYjolv1GwKCjlojG7p/s1600/pellet-machine.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhg4dargZ9IKabSJ2fQNljkM34u8_tRh_-aOZ3eNAutxZ2eo8fT_CsrOdv7L4FrtDPNo3hw2yP1Zwc4ee_-EFH0aA1YcYnnMfL1BKcJlBhYeA4EE0PX4e8J-0vIyZRYjolv1GwKCjlojG7p/s400/pellet-machine.JPG" width="302" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">A machine for making pellet powder invented by Sir John Anderson. Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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It consists of a disk of about 6 feet diameter (the pressing table) which revolves about one of the columns. The disk has teeth all around its circumference, which allows it to be rotated by means of a pinion and handle mechanism. The disk has four round metal plates placed symmetrically, about 2 inches thick and 1.5 feet in diameter. In each metal plate are drilled about 200 cylindrical holes of about 5/8 inch diameter. Above each plate is a movable covering-plate which can be pressed tightly against it, and into each of these 200 holes a small plunger enters, which goes through the bottom part of the disk and can be lifted from below by a hydraulic press.<br />
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Two opposite plates are always pressed at the same time. As soon as the movable plates are lifted, the molds are filled with meal powder, the plates are cleaned and excess powder wiped off, and the movable plates lowered and fixed so that they close the holes on the top. Then the plungers are pressed into the molds, causing the layer of powder to be compressed to 5/8 inches in height. After this, the movable plates are lifted and the plungers are pushed further into the holes, thereby pushing the formed pellets out of the mold holes.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiODwZFisYm0SUXp03KUBOtumOL4YbVbqbyX4yp_wy31q79Szdsj-lF5zNF4CWvnuqcKiYrK-SDZG9f5rnPGnkIeMZPDF3eNYrfxg1EgQiTZ06Tykq2XJGY_VLTfG_ElzYtaqK7g_CCwPO7/s1600/pellet-machine2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiODwZFisYm0SUXp03KUBOtumOL4YbVbqbyX4yp_wy31q79Szdsj-lF5zNF4CWvnuqcKiYrK-SDZG9f5rnPGnkIeMZPDF3eNYrfxg1EgQiTZ06Tykq2XJGY_VLTfG_ElzYtaqK7g_CCwPO7/s1600/pellet-machine2.JPG" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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After the pellets are pushed out, the disk is then rotated for a quarter turn and the pellets are taken off the two mold-plates. Meanwhile the same operation is then carried out with the other two plates.<br />
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The pressure applied to the powder by this machine is about 0.5 tons per square inch. The pellet formed is shaped like a cylinder with one or both bases having a hollow in the middle in the shape of a blunt cone. The size of the pellets made by this machine are 5/8 inch diameter, 5/8 inch height and depth of the hole is 1/4 inch and each pellet weighs about 100 grains.<br />
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In America, the Du Pont powder company made a hexagonal pressed pellet powder, which looks like two truncated hexagonal pyramids connected by a cylindrical layer of powder.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYD3JYS6MldBO97NrDCQOwn_5kpQI2Rqrfrq3TWOq0UBT7aWEytJ4TOJZrIRblaJwz-gI0749xoyRIb0JyTj8Y8wlBpr2e5emXcjWt4qgIkbgGHGWXGCrd9LSzfuOHHuMJRb4wU0oi7erl/s1600/dupont-powder.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYD3JYS6MldBO97NrDCQOwn_5kpQI2Rqrfrq3TWOq0UBT7aWEytJ4TOJZrIRblaJwz-gI0749xoyRIb0JyTj8Y8wlBpr2e5emXcjWt4qgIkbgGHGWXGCrd9LSzfuOHHuMJRb4wU0oi7erl/s1600/dupont-powder.JPG" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Du Pont Powder. Public domain image.</span></div>
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This powder was made by the following process: A lower plate in which a number of pyramidal holes were cut was covered with powder and a second similar plate was laid over it and then pressure was applied. Depending on the thickness of the layer of powder, the cylindrical part connecting the two pyramidal halves will be thicker or thinner. After pressing, the cake is broken, this causing the grains to break off on the edges of the cylindrical part.<br />
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In Italy, they made compressed pellets in cubical form, sold under the brand name "<b>Fossano Powder</b>", because it was first manufactured in a gunpowder factory at the town of Fossano in northern Italy. Fossano powder is a type of "Progressive Powder" and was invented by Colonel Quaglia (the factory director) and his assistant, Captain de Maria.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgw9feQ4KiDBBQ9k8T9zFq_GMdmu7xeKPRywLcRTthPpCIDoFCOkwLMWVl6cwPKIFhwRhUXNyZJChZVPtDKGH54ul4A7zQIK6wJTtmKlUrDzrnqRwAKCQ04aDdQlj18RnHJaW3uGtIx_bPQ/s1600/fossano.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgw9feQ4KiDBBQ9k8T9zFq_GMdmu7xeKPRywLcRTthPpCIDoFCOkwLMWVl6cwPKIFhwRhUXNyZJChZVPtDKGH54ul4A7zQIK6wJTtmKlUrDzrnqRwAKCQ04aDdQlj18RnHJaW3uGtIx_bPQ/s1600/fossano.JPG" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Fossano Powder. Public domain image.</span></div>
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The manufacture of Fossano powder was done in multiple stages. In the beginning stage, meal powder was pressed into cakes of density about 1.79. Each cake was then broken up into irregular grains of about 1/8 to 1/4 inch in thickness. Then grains were then mixed again with a certain quantity of meal powder and then pressed into cakes again, with a density of 1.776. This second cake was then broken up into cubes. Therefore, each cube would be composed of powder pieces of higher density enclosed in a powder material of lower density, sort of like raisins inside a plum-pudding. The idea behind this was that due to the differing densities of powder, more gas would be produced after the powder has been partially burnt, than at the start of ignition of the powder, leading to the 'progressiveness' of the explosion (which is why it is called a "progressive powder"). This allows the pressure on the projectile to be maintained during its course in the bore and possibly increased while it is moving away.<br />
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Pellet powders burn slower than other ordinary large grained powders due to their larger grain sizes and is therefore less violent in action. Experiments in England showed that these could produce muzzle velocity greater than ordinary large-grained powder with peak pressure hitting about half that of large-grained powder.<br />
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Pellets are still available today for black powder enthusiasts:<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQNpE1gqUAfua5sNWM3ArxetLs7oOHljzNnryVtyb0YVyt3M8HZzbZio94MYiwRHkSqe8aWgNE6_MJ-IiMxoiV9rJjz9xR2AP5T3qfgQ7UBXJpraba-2DWkNvFPDVFqL5ja7R21aDozuz_/s1600/pyrodex.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQNpE1gqUAfua5sNWM3ArxetLs7oOHljzNnryVtyb0YVyt3M8HZzbZio94MYiwRHkSqe8aWgNE6_MJ-IiMxoiV9rJjz9xR2AP5T3qfgQ7UBXJpraba-2DWkNvFPDVFqL5ja7R21aDozuz_/s1600/pyrodex.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Pyrodex 50/50 grain pellets/</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipSJMyuBBqdk98Jc-2Xu9Pb5JKIMu6qR7-pgrqf9oMyoB8Tm3VMVeWNvwYXEwRNvTLULqc7L_V9TYd0akT9sSwCArS8O88XtQpELXKCvtmkO3sZDKBVpOCgbNlMg38X1cvfLJrlQ9scc68/s1600/pyrodex2.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipSJMyuBBqdk98Jc-2Xu9Pb5JKIMu6qR7-pgrqf9oMyoB8Tm3VMVeWNvwYXEwRNvTLULqc7L_V9TYd0akT9sSwCArS8O88XtQpELXKCvtmkO3sZDKBVpOCgbNlMg38X1cvfLJrlQ9scc68/s400/pyrodex2.jpeg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgC1YRsIcUIknP6qbf5ag9TPzQwNEMSdFHknErepsMKm0u7abjJVTkmGtwIefA6mzcJzDyFX2w44R6jFix47wpq8KdrzZdiJ3N31cMGphyMnsow4dPq0UmV18yGqiKoBL_ilzQaFiAIuwWw/s1600/triple7-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="345" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgC1YRsIcUIknP6qbf5ag9TPzQwNEMSdFHknErepsMKm0u7abjJVTkmGtwIefA6mzcJzDyFX2w44R6jFix47wpq8KdrzZdiJ3N31cMGphyMnsow4dPq0UmV18yGqiKoBL_ilzQaFiAIuwWw/s400/triple7-2.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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The above images show modern pellets available today in many sporting goods stores. However, these are made of black powder substitute, not original black powder. Black powder substitute is less sensitive to ignition than real black powder and is more energetic.<br />
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<br />The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-7531331013018189602016-09-10T10:04:00.002-07:002016-09-10T10:04:58.997-07:00Black Powder XXIV - Pebble PowdersA couple of posts ago, we saw why <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxii-compressed-powder.html">larger grain black powders were more suitable for larger guns and artillery</a>, and studied two powders that were developed to handle this: <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxii-compressed-powder.html">compressed powder</a> and <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxiii-prismatic-powder.html">prismatic powder</a>. In today's post, we will study another type of black powder designed for larger calibers, which was in use in the 19th century. Today's object of study will be <b>pebble powders</b>.<br />
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Pebble powders were generally made in two grades: the P type (which were cubes of approximately 1/2 to 5/8 inches in size) and the P<sup>2</sup> type (which were 1.5 inch cubes).<br />
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The process of manufacturing pebble powders started off similar to manufacturing other <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/07/black-powder-iv-powder-grain-sizes.html">finer grain powders</a>, until the <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xi-pressing.html">process of pressing the powder into cakes</a>. The pressed cakes were formed into slabs of about 15 inches x 30 inches and thickness depending on whether P type or P<sup>2</sup> type was being made (i.e. 1/2, 5/8 or 1.5 inches).<br />
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For P type powders, the pressed cake slabs were then fed into a cutting machine:<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLMvBMhXS88Ee-7ebiCXDTBr24c_yR9YAthIXnUsFbUIQBRjm6FwrArmYcZ30wXj0b0firfYIk-0qo8gDkEhWPGP310ZNs07la0-xR5Odf3HCExRqbzQH7g7mDEd6U8Ctmdn06kXROayz8/s1600/cutting-machine.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="372" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLMvBMhXS88Ee-7ebiCXDTBr24c_yR9YAthIXnUsFbUIQBRjm6FwrArmYcZ30wXj0b0firfYIk-0qo8gDkEhWPGP310ZNs07la0-xR5Odf3HCExRqbzQH7g7mDEd6U8Ctmdn06kXROayz8/s640/cutting-machine.JPG" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">A cutting machine for manufacturing P type pebble powders. Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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The exploded view of the machine above was invented by a Major Morgan and was in use at the Royal Gunpowder Mill in Waltham Abbey, England. It consists of two pairs of phosphor-bronze rollers which are at right angles to each other and at different heights. Each roller has knives attached to its circumference, with spaces between the knives corresponding to the required size of the powder cubes. The pressed cake enters the first pair of rollers and is cut into long thin strips and these strips then fall on to a conveyor belt which carries them to the second pair of rollers, which are at right angles to the first pair. The second pair of rollers cut the long strips into cubes.<br />
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It may be seen that if a first pair of rollers were fixed, then the second long strip cut would fall onto the first and the third one on to the second and so on and the result would be long strips piling up in one location on the lower conveyor belt. To avoid this, the upper pair of rollers are mounted on a board which is arranged to move back and forth, the basic mechanism of which is shown below.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihCDNg0Ex4MWNfn72tdZObuOqv_WGUhShD9b4s83uUrBxhwDJgiS61OcXOSAOqGS6c7L1Gy44rQuTbYgqkOwiL2dy7EyfT-BRHIeFjm5VVARlV7ZRTgzHmFND3Pl0eI8xmDfIW7ARA0ac2/s1600/moving-table.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="190" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihCDNg0Ex4MWNfn72tdZObuOqv_WGUhShD9b4s83uUrBxhwDJgiS61OcXOSAOqGS6c7L1Gy44rQuTbYgqkOwiL2dy7EyfT-BRHIeFjm5VVARlV7ZRTgzHmFND3Pl0eI8xmDfIW7ARA0ac2/s640/moving-table.JPG" width="640" /></a></div>
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The bottom of the board has a fixed slotted bar. The chain has a pin on one of its links that engages the slotted bar. As the chain moves along its two rollers, it pulls the board above it in a back and forth motion. This results in the long strips cut from the first set of rollers falling side by side instead of one above the other.<br />
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For P<sup>2</sup> type powders, the cubes were generally cut by hand, by using lever-knives (i.e.) knives hinged at one end, with an handle at the other, much like a modern day paper trimmer. The press cakes were cut into long strips and then cut across into cubes.<br />
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After this, both P and P<sup>2</sup> type powders were sent through a <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xiv-dusting-and-glazing.html">glazing and dusting process</a>, to ensure that edges and corners of the cubes were rounded off and sharp edges removed. This ensured that the cubes would have a harder surface and would not produce dust or waste when being stored or transported around.<br />
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The powder was then dried similar to the <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xv-drying-powder.html">process of drying</a> the smaller grain powders, except that the temperature of drying was lower and the drying period was correspondingly longer. The drying process was slower to avoid forming cracks on the cubes. After this, a <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xvi-finishing.html">finishing process</a> followed, with the powder being run in wooden barrels, which combined sifting the powder along with a finish glaze. A small quantity of graphite powder was introduced into the finishing barrels to give the grains a glossy finish and render them less hygroscopic.<br />
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In our next post, we will look at pellet powders.<br />
<br />The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-80737140572454503492016-09-05T21:31:00.001-07:002016-09-06T07:41:05.066-07:00Black Powder XXIII - Prismatic PowderIn our last post, we studied the invention of <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/09/black-powder-xxii-compressed-powder.html">compressed black powder</a> by General Thomas Rodman of the US Army. While this idea had sound theoretical fundamentals and also could be demonstrated successfully in trials, there were some practical difficulties encountered when manufacturing this powder in bulk and deploying the compressed powder cakes in the field. The main issues were that it was hard to press such large, heavy cakes of powder in the presses of the time and the large perforated cakes of powder also had structural integrity problems and tended to break up into smaller grains during transport, or while being handled in a battlefield.<br />
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A solution to this problem was proposed by another American, Professor Robert Ogden Doremus, a professor of chemistry, and a co-founder of New York Medical College.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTjhhrgv52lQBTw6C_PNBuHnnRlgNcuYDoDGdswMLw-_iNUtw93x2abpJRReLoDV8F_GcGOX14w8K_SZul7NuN_7TFNujrBcyEiOpO95z4tteT2DphioJhY6dW3u-0yyzaHxcAdYjP19m0/s1600/Robert_Ogden_Doremus.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTjhhrgv52lQBTw6C_PNBuHnnRlgNcuYDoDGdswMLw-_iNUtw93x2abpJRReLoDV8F_GcGOX14w8K_SZul7NuN_7TFNujrBcyEiOpO95z4tteT2DphioJhY6dW3u-0yyzaHxcAdYjP19m0/s320/Robert_Ogden_Doremus.jpg" width="247" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Robert Ogden Doremus. Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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Doremus' idea was that instead of pressing together a large cake of powder equal to the bore of the cannon, he suggested manufacturing them into hexagonal prisms of a smaller size, with comparatively smaller holes running through them. This powder was called <b>prismatic powder</b>.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjgxakafDkWvvfcRwD5Ze23VbyDTQvnTewVXBzUMhzCl_NZEV6Dx3T-RAHdG8pSYxop7vTOnoW3OZCuR-J582rMQiySUBnm1mL9fqTGMinzCorSReG3BemD0C7k9viN9N0Zq9Cf2ta_E-YK/s1600/hexagonal-prisms.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjgxakafDkWvvfcRwD5Ze23VbyDTQvnTewVXBzUMhzCl_NZEV6Dx3T-RAHdG8pSYxop7vTOnoW3OZCuR-J582rMQiySUBnm1mL9fqTGMinzCorSReG3BemD0C7k9viN9N0Zq9Cf2ta_E-YK/s1600/hexagonal-prisms.JPG" /></a></div>
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The number of holes in each prism could be less in number (usually between 1 and 7) and these could be stacked together to form a rigid cartridge, much less liable to break up during manufacturing and transport. Due to their smaller sizes, it was easier to manufacture a number of smaller hexagonal cakes, rather than one large cake weighing several pounds in weight.<br />
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Another idea also due to Professor Doremus was to make different sections of a cartridge with different densities of powder, whereby the density would affect the rate of combustion and maintain a higher average pressure. The idea was to pack the first part of the cartridge under high pressure, then make two more layers on the same cartridge under lower pressures.<br />
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During the Civil War, a Russian military commission visited the United States and were greatly impressed by the results shown by Doremus' prismatic powder and undertook to develop and use prismatic powder in their large guns as well. Doremus also visited Paris and impressed the French with his new powder and was authorized by the French ministry of war to modify the machinery at a French powder factory to produce his prismatic powder. In fact, a large portion of the Frejus Rail Tunnel between France and Italy was blasted away with "la poudre comprimée". Pretty soon, many European countries (Italy, Germany, France, UK etc.) started to manufacture prismatic powder as well.<br />
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The cakes were generally made from granulated powder, which was then compressed under pressure, either using a press driven by gears, cams and pistons, or by a press driven by hydraulic pressure.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjn8lr9cMJfNffuFqUkJ7obR_YsqAeLmws_3CDxb_B-kjuYvxyXuobZozVWpFW-e4gIl2h9a2vHZm62LAl7VRvhtw59UhX3tRyQ88k4Y6_a-Rt_jC-CC7Y0vXM7u_v-kt6GmYF3TGB8Z7tK/s1600/cam-press.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjn8lr9cMJfNffuFqUkJ7obR_YsqAeLmws_3CDxb_B-kjuYvxyXuobZozVWpFW-e4gIl2h9a2vHZm62LAl7VRvhtw59UhX3tRyQ88k4Y6_a-Rt_jC-CC7Y0vXM7u_v-kt6GmYF3TGB8Z7tK/s400/cam-press.JPG" width="397" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">A cam-press for making prismatic powder.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">This press was built by the Grunsonwerk of Buckau, Germany. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">A hydraulic press for making prismatic powder.<br />This press was manufactured by Taylor and Challen of Birmingham for the Royal Gunpowder Factory, Waltham Abbey, England</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image,</span></div>
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To make this powder, <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xii-granulating.html">granulated powder</a> containing about 4% moisture was put into the hopper of the press. The more moist the powder, the easier it is to press it into shape, but the powder can't be too moist, otherwise the saltpeter will migrate to the powder's surface while drying. The powder was filled into several molds, the height of which was adjusted depending on the moisture content of the powder and the moisture content in the air that day. Then, the press was activated and pressure was applied to the powder in the molds, to form prisms of the required shape and size. The sizes and densities of the prisms varied by country. For instance, in England, the prisms were about 1.5 inches high and had a desnity of 1.78, whereas in Germany, the prisms were about 1 inch high and 1.575 inches over the angles, with the weight being about 1.41 ounces and density of 1.66. Hydraulic presses were generally used in England, Germany and France towards the latter part of the nineteenth century, but cam-presses were still in use in some parts.<br />
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After pressing, the prisms were <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xv-drying-powder.html">dried in special drying-houses</a> using trays. The trays were made of narrow wooden strips, with enough gaps between them to let air pass through, but not big enough to let the powder fall through. At Waltham Abbey, the drying process was done slowly for 140 hours and the dried powder contained less than 1% moisture. At Spandau, Germany, they would dry the powder at a faster rate by using air at a temperature of 122 °F for about 48 hours, after which the powder would contain less than 0.75% moisture.<br />
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In our next post, we will look into another type of powder called "pebble powder", which was manufactured in the 19th century.<br />
<br />The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-28553909071785046032016-09-02T23:05:00.001-07:002016-09-02T23:08:50.843-07:00Black Powder XXII - Compressed PowderIn today's post, we will look at a form of powder that was used during the Civil War, called <b>compressed powder</b>. The origin of this powder has to do with larger guns rather than firearms, but is still an interesting point of study, since it leads down to prismatic and pebble powders later down the line.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiA2ct0JhikZQw6DsYSEima6hWDaT9-eSFRJX63zdC3JwUWQbf5vFfk-xUvVueMgXeRrakhnD27sYN8QgYusj5fi_WXP98ijwUFaVtKHL1Rf7flpc5g55sMwKagWmNT84_LQ6s3zXpPbSzS/s1600/T_J_Rodman.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiA2ct0JhikZQw6DsYSEima6hWDaT9-eSFRJX63zdC3JwUWQbf5vFfk-xUvVueMgXeRrakhnD27sYN8QgYusj5fi_WXP98ijwUFaVtKHL1Rf7flpc5g55sMwKagWmNT84_LQ6s3zXpPbSzS/s1600/T_J_Rodman.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">General Thomas J. Rodman. Public domain image.</span></div>
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The first breakthrough into compressed powders was due to a career US Army officer named Thomas Jackson Rodman. He was an inventive man with an interest in artillery, and early in his career, he was appointed as a brevet second lieutenant in the US Army Ordnance Department, where he started working at improving cannons.<br />
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At around 1856, he noted that ordinary service powder could not be used in larger guns, because the initial gas pressure developed was sometimes high enough to cause the gun to be destroyed. The range of the gun was also reduced. The reasons are as follows:<br />
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If a fine grained powder is used for a large gun, a large portion of it is burned at the moment of ignition, due to its larger surface area (remember that <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/07/black-powder-iii.html">black powder is surface burning</a> and the larger the outer surface area of the powder, the faster it burns). Therefore, this causes a very high maximum pressure to be generated at the beginning and then tapers off as the rest of the powder burns, which leads to a lower average force, compared to the initial force. In fact, the initial pressure may be high enough to cause the cannon to explode with disastrous results. Therefore, the rate of combustion of the gunpowder had to be reduced somehow.<br />
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Rodman found from his experiments that he could considerably reduce this initial pressure in the gun by using disks of compressed powder, perforated by holes. The disks were made of a diameter equal to that of the bore of the cannon and between 1 and 2 inches in thickness and perforated with a number of holes.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2WspJodEllGjxH2qi6HNgha6oWcWk_588tiQsfIWe9MyqN-XAt7x_4Tdd1JR_ojqbbzo0ABIPGFcNCItrh9_4_tpdQFQWPIvCJDfQcKqtoB0DWDJ3O99dcBz1xjXsRCR2GDrzN3oILxU7/s1600/compressed-powder-1.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj2WspJodEllGjxH2qi6HNgha6oWcWk_588tiQsfIWe9MyqN-XAt7x_4Tdd1JR_ojqbbzo0ABIPGFcNCItrh9_4_tpdQFQWPIvCJDfQcKqtoB0DWDJ3O99dcBz1xjXsRCR2GDrzN3oILxU7/s1600/compressed-powder-1.JPG" /></a></div>
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With this type of powder, the surface area of the powder is smaller initially and only develops enough pressure to overcome the inertia of the cannon ball. Consequently, the projectile properly engages the rifling and gets pushed out with a regular motion, which is very important because accuracy depends on uniform movement of the projectile in the barrel<br />
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Surface area comparison of ordinary powder (green) vs. Rodman's compressed powder (red cylinder). Click on the image to enlarge. Public domain image.</span></div>
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As the powder burns more, the surface area exposed increases due to the constant enlargement of the holes bored through the compressed powder. Due to the constant increase of the area of the burning surface, this causes a corresponding constant increase in the rate of production of the burning gases. This results in a longer and more consistent burn time inside the bore of the barrel. Therefore, the average pressure generated is higher and this increases the range of the gun significantly, without making the pressure rise to dangerous levels initially.<br />
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Rodman first published his discoveries in a scientific paper in 1861 ("Properties of Metals for Cannon and Qualities of Cannon Powder") and his ideas were put into practice in the Civil War. His special compressed powder was produced under the name "mammoth powder" and other inventors also benefited from his breakthrough, as we'll see in our next few posts.<br />
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As a result of his work, Rodman was promoted to brevet brigadier general at the end of the Civil War. He remained in the military for the rest of his life, being promoted to the permanent rank of lieutenant colonel in the US Army. Incidentally, in 1865, he was sent to Rock Island, Illinois and put in charge of supervising the construction of a new military facility, which became the Rock Island Arsenal, which still exists and is one of the largest government-owned weapons manufacturing factories in the United States.<br />
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<br />The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-14293066214516173102016-08-30T23:03:00.002-07:002016-08-31T08:47:22.021-07:00Black Powder XXI - Damaged PowderIn our <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xx-reworking-and-re-shaking.html">last post</a>, we saw how black powder that had absorbed some moisture in the field, could be reworked to become useful again. However, this reworking process only worked if the black powder had absorbed a smaller amount of moisture from the air (< 7% by weight). Unfortunately there were situations where the powder could absorb a lot more than this. In today's post, we will discuss what they did with the powder in the 19th century when this happened.<br />
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Remember that black powder was not always stored indoors in a warehouse under dry conditions. It may have been transported in the cargo compartment of a ship, or perhaps it was shipped by cart to some distant battlefield. There were plenty of situations where the barrels could have been exposed to a lot of water (e.g.) water frequently seeped into cargo compartments inside the ships and had to be periodically pumped out, carts could be driven through thunderstorms, the barrels could have been frequently opened and closed in wet conditions in the field etc. In such situations, the barrels could absorb a lot more moisture than 7% by weight and the powder was considered damaged. Armies and Navies would typically send this damaged powder back to the factory, where they would deal with it.<br />
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At the factory, they would first figure out how much moisture the powder contained, using the method we studied in our <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xx-reworking-and-re-shaking.html">previous post</a>. If it was well below 7% by weight, it could be dried and recovered, as we pointed out in our previous post. Another technique was to take a small amount of the damaged powder and mix it with a barrel of newly manufactured powder, so that the overall moisture content of this mixed powder was within tolerable limits. For instance, the mix could consist of about 10% damaged powder and 90% new powder and would have pretty much the same propulsive force.<br />
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However if the powder was too badly damaged by moisture, then they would usually try to recover the potassium nitrate from the mixture, as it was the most valuable ingredient. Remember that saltpeter (the source of nitrates) was a <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/02/the-history-of-saltpeter-i.html">hard-to-obtain substance for many centuries</a> and <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/05/the-history-of-saltpeter-xii.html">England controlled the source of most of the world's supply</a> for decades. Therefore, many countries found it worthwhile to try and extract as much nitrate as possible from the damaged powder. For instance, in the Confederate States, they had a Damaged Powder Works in Augusta, Georgia, to which all damaged powder from the field was sent to.<br />
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At the Damaged Powder Works, they would empty 8 barrels (800 lbs.) of powder into a large copper vessel and then add about 200-240 gallons of water. The vessel was then heated until its contents began to boil. The boiling water would dissolve the potassium nitrates in the powder, while the sulfur and charcoal remained undissolved. After this, the hot water was pumped out of the vessel through a double filter arrangement and poured into shallow crystallizing pans, where the liquid would cool and form nitrate crystals. The crystallizing pans would be shaken while the liquid was cooling, so that the nitrate crystals formed would be of small size. Since charcoal and sulfur don't dissolve in water, they remain behind in the vessel and filters. This method could recover over 95% of the nitrate content in the damaged powder. The recovered nitrate crystals were then sent back to the <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/07/black-powder-ix.html">gunpowder factory to be used to make black powder again</a>.<br />
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In the case of lightly damaged powders, the Damaged Powder Works often reworked it to make blasting powder, which is a low-grade black powder with a lower percentage of niter and more dust. To do this, they would take the damaged powder and add more sulfur and charcoal, so that the percentage of niter was reduced. The mixture would then be incorporated for a short time and then granulated to form blasting powder.<br />
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The Damaged Powder Works not only recovered nitrates from damaged powder, they also tried to recover it from byproducts of the manufacturing process as well, since niter was such a precious substance. They would try to recover saltpeter from the sacks that it was shipped in, from sweepings from the factory floor of the powder mill and even from washing the workers' clothes. The remnants of the mother liquor from the niter refineries were also sent over, so that they could extract the last possible bit of nitrates from there.<br />
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<br />The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-83028663667931584202016-08-29T22:14:00.001-07:002016-08-29T22:17:46.659-07:00Black Powder XX - Reworking and Re-ShakingIn our last post, we looked at <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xix-more-on-packing.html">different types of containers that black powder was shipped in</a>, in the 19th century.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiD6K8T27cQxiuGn7rD1tsPgXRVcDrum8Q5mztV1699Pe44gr-vHn0yKanIPQKa3jHDU785CZZux1uWiaCdhlUhTZx6pQ0IyHXL2PNpeDjXJ5GhD38dwdgKF3x6Wua2FsBOKEoQfRWmHW3v/s1600/powder-barrel.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="305" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiD6K8T27cQxiuGn7rD1tsPgXRVcDrum8Q5mztV1699Pe44gr-vHn0yKanIPQKa3jHDU785CZZux1uWiaCdhlUhTZx6pQ0IyHXL2PNpeDjXJ5GhD38dwdgKF3x6Wua2FsBOKEoQfRWmHW3v/s400/powder-barrel.JPG" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">A stack of powder barrels. Click on the image to enlarge.</span></div>
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Now, it must be remembered that black powder is hygroscopic in nature, which means it tends to absorb water from the air. Despite the best efforts to provide a tight seal to the barrels, there is a chance that the powder inside may still absorb some moisture over a period of time, especially if there is a lot of relative humidity in the air. If the black powder absorbs sufficient moisture, then this reduces the burning rate and strength of the black powder. Moisture can also cause caking in the powder. Water also causes the potassium nitrate to separate out of the black powder and can cause corrosion of metal gun parts. Therefore, it was not a good idea to leave barrels stored in the warehouse untouched for many years. We will study some methods that were in use in the 19th century to handle the problem of the black powder absorbing water in today's post.</div>
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To handle the caking issue, barrels were generally filled to 90% of their capacity. For instance, in the above image, we see that the barrel holds 100 lb. of powder. The barrel is actually capable of holding about 110 lbs. of powder or so, but it is only filled with 100 lb. of powder, which leaves a little room available for the powder to move around. Therefore, the contents of the barrel are free to move during transport of the powder and this helps break up any large lumps. In England, they would roll the barrels every year over a copper plate on the floor of the magazine, with the idea that this redistributes the contents inside and prevent caking.</div>
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In many countries, it was standard procedure to examine the barrels after a certain amount of time had elapsed (which is why the date/year of manufacture was stamped on every barrel). For instance, in France, they examined the barrels once a year for moisture damage. First, they would put each barrel on its side and roll it on a floor covered with hair rugs. If the sound coming out of the barrel was uniform, that meant the powder was good. Any uneven sounds meant that there was likely some moisture absorbed and caked powder inside. In this case, they would open the barrel and determine the moisture content of the powder before deciding how to proceed.</div>
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To determine the moisture content in the powder, they would take three samples of powder, one from the top, one from the bottom and one from the middle of the barrel. The samples would be carefully mixed and then 5 grams of powder would be carefully extracted from this sample. This powder would then be subject to a <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xv-drying-powder.html">drying process, like the ones we studied previously</a>. After this, it would be weighed again and the difference in weight indicates the percentage of moisture content in the sample.</div>
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If the moisture content of the sample was found to be below 7%, then all the powder was simply taken out of the barrel and dried, either by using the sun, or by using an artificial drying process like the ones we studied a few posts before. The barrel was also dried separately. Then the powder was subjected to a <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xiv-dusting-and-glazing.html">dusting process</a> and then re-packed into the barrel. If the powder inside the barrel was found to have clumps in it, then these were broken by hand and was put back into a dry barrel and re-shaken to break up any smaller lumps. </div>
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If the moisture content of the sample was found to be greater than 7%, or if the saltpeter had begun to migrate out of the powder, then the powder was subjected to a chemical analysis to check if the proportions of the three ingredients were still within acceptable limits and if so, the powder was sent back to the mill to repeat the <a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/07/black-powder-viii.html">stamping process</a> that we studied about a month ago.</div>
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Any barrel found to contain moisture was not put back to its original place in the warehouse after the reworking process. Instead, its position was swapped with another barrel from the stack of barrels, so that those that were in the bottom of the pile would now be on top and vice-versa. </div>
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In Germany, they would expose the powder to sunlight at regular periods, whether the powder contained moisture or not. The Prussian procedure was to do this every two years, which later changed to every 8-10 years, if the barrels were located inside a dry powder magazine.</div>
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In our next post, we will study what was done if the powder was found to be in a damaged state. </div>
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The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-9038805453913133808.post-20530303573678453462016-08-28T00:46:00.002-07:002016-08-28T08:58:04.289-07:00Black Powder XIX - More on PackingIn our last post, we talked about the <b><a href="http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2016/08/black-powder-xviii-packing.html">packing process</a></b> of black powder in the 19th century. However, that post went a little easy on details about the containers used, so we will discuss those in today's post.<br />
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Black powder was generally shipped in boxes (cases) or cylindrical containers. Barrels were used because they were designed to hold goods without risk of leakage and were used for centuries for this purpose. On the other hand, boxes are easier to stack on top of each other than barrels and waste less room.<br />
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The boxes were usually made of copper and had powder loaded in a linen bag, or they were made of wood (which was cheaper) and had a slightly smaller box inside, into which the powder was loaded. Boxes varied in size, depending on the country, the type of powder etc. For instance, in England, some cases were about 2 feet long, 2 feet wide and 6 inches high. In the Confederate States, their boxes were about one foot long, one foot wide and 2.5 feet long. In Austria, their boxes were big enough to contain about 64 lbs. of powder. For sea duty, the boxes were generally made of copper. While boxes cannot be rolled around easily like barrels, they can be packed together more tightly than barrels can, which is why some factories started to switch from barrels to boxes towards the end of the nineteenth century.<br />
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Containers generally came in multiple sizes: <b>Barrels</b>, <b>Kegs</b> and <b>Canisters</b>.<br />
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Barrels are generally the largest of these containers. Typical barrels of the nineteenth century were about 2 feet high and about 1 to 1.5 feet in diameter. Capacity of the barrels varied by country, but most could usually hold about 110-120 lbs. of powder. However, these barrels were usually only filled to about 90% of the capacity (e.g. they would only fill about 100 lbs. of powder to a barrel capable of holding 110 lbs.). This was done so that the powder would have room to move inside the barrel during transport and wouldn't get caked.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrYFd8mJOnUaPf94GywQOVtoQfU6oi27hUgNsGFxGN2H6jaaKy9sdAbQNH7Lo0Q2zzZwxXqPFqljS7KVFyvs3Ew2-M08pwZDR-pmm4Vbd7Ghz33tdFW1h1ZheAEVS7NxASoe5YIU7j_YQQ/s1600/powder-barrel.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="305" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrYFd8mJOnUaPf94GywQOVtoQfU6oi27hUgNsGFxGN2H6jaaKy9sdAbQNH7Lo0Q2zzZwxXqPFqljS7KVFyvs3Ew2-M08pwZDR-pmm4Vbd7Ghz33tdFW1h1ZheAEVS7NxASoe5YIU7j_YQQ/s400/powder-barrel.JPG" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">A stack of powder barrels made in England. Click on the image to enlarge.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjl5n6_yfANyBphyphenhyphenV6g2cPVTF-yCCBKo0-iWAbd_4UDUMJc8TMBOzWAOKvIWxkoxnOVl8LVkKzDiz5SLxV-DkFp_xMozAy8_iC8Lj4bq1yx-EtHyvn5PseBWYL11zrChyxoUAheFyq18I7/s1600/powder-barrels2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="298" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjl5n6_yfANyBphyphenhyphenV6g2cPVTF-yCCBKo0-iWAbd_4UDUMJc8TMBOzWAOKvIWxkoxnOVl8LVkKzDiz5SLxV-DkFp_xMozAy8_iC8Lj4bq1yx-EtHyvn5PseBWYL11zrChyxoUAheFyq18I7/s400/powder-barrels2.JPG" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Another stack of powder barrels. Click on the image to enlarge.</span></div>
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Most barrels would have a hole of about 1.5 to 2 inches diameter drilled to the top of the barrel, which would then be plugged with a wooden screw. This way, if someone wanted to access the powder inside the barrel, they only needed to remove the screw instead of the entire top of the barrel. A leather washer soaked in wax and turpentine would be placed under the screw head, which served to keep moisture out. The image below shows an example of this:<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzG89TB_LYE3wawDYw60u0v0nUTDq2LCnS78Z2zoCXSKk3t6ggz6j3W_AWON3tHAdAzRqrk92D_NIyuwMFtBKlTxyjHV3hObQtXnjqtmmWk4hAneb5yaUDDYt93MGPyim4H-27ZCPMZzE1/s1600/Laflin__Rand_Powder_Keg-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzG89TB_LYE3wawDYw60u0v0nUTDq2LCnS78Z2zoCXSKk3t6ggz6j3W_AWON3tHAdAzRqrk92D_NIyuwMFtBKlTxyjHV3hObQtXnjqtmmWk4hAneb5yaUDDYt93MGPyim4H-27ZCPMZzE1/s400/Laflin__Rand_Powder_Keg-2.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Notice the screw at the top of the barrel. Click on the image to enlarge.</span></div>
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Kegs were generally built on the same principle as barrels, but were much smaller in size, typically holding about 25 lbs. of powder. Also, instead of having an opening on top, most kegs had an opening in the middle to access the powder.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieETEevKqxXgoO6zNhwuxWX3mfabkGH9CcPNj6h1G5SquHqXg7C-wAe8ilHdeXnzs_3bt6E-GYNxp_J5ZMYUPM0OnQffQo1472aWLtd9b2adA0vC0DF_0ZQH4XJm25GzXELUpoOxqB6XSO/s1600/powder-keg.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEieETEevKqxXgoO6zNhwuxWX3mfabkGH9CcPNj6h1G5SquHqXg7C-wAe8ilHdeXnzs_3bt6E-GYNxp_J5ZMYUPM0OnQffQo1472aWLtd9b2adA0vC0DF_0ZQH4XJm25GzXELUpoOxqB6XSO/s1600/powder-keg.jpg" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">An example of a powder keg</span></div>
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Kegs are much easier to transport than barrels on account of their lesser weight and were favored in places where there wasn't much room to move around in (e.g. on board ships).<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4tnjSJ-a1KRq_1KHzK9vrcv6XW35xsDNia-1EGEasj1Dn7EW-nOLBmwyM924Q5OpC0x8J4lpxdqHjpmWykOXi01LZyH4vLML-omTB8TKQXigJ7iLx9V1hyphenhyphen0ZPSKkIY0Zv0zQtT97AiNU-/s1600/powder-kegs.webp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="313" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4tnjSJ-a1KRq_1KHzK9vrcv6XW35xsDNia-1EGEasj1Dn7EW-nOLBmwyM924Q5OpC0x8J4lpxdqHjpmWykOXi01LZyH4vLML-omTB8TKQXigJ7iLx9V1hyphenhyphen0ZPSKkIY0Zv0zQtT97AiNU-/s400/powder-kegs.webp" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">A couple of Civil War era powder kegs. Click on the image to enlarge.</span></div>
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Finally, we have canisters. Unlike barrels and kegs, these were generally made of metal and had the least capacity of the three container types.<br />
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">A black powder canister. Click on the image to enlarge.</span></div>
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Powder canisters typically held about 0.5 to 1 lb. of powder. The above example is a canister made by the Eureka Powder Works of New Durham, New Hampshire. It is made of steel, is about 4.75 x 4 x 1.75 inches in size and has a paper covering on the outside with hunting scenes printed on it. Due to their small size and capacity, these are much lighter than the other containers we have studied above and are easy to transport. Unlike barrels and kegs, these were intended to be sold to private individuals rather than military units.<br />
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<br />The Editorhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16500376725481184982noreply@blogger.com0